John  3-ett 


AN     ABRIDGMENT 


HYGIENIC  PHYSIOLOGY, 


WITH     SPECIAL     REFERENCE     T© 


ALCOHOLIC  DRINKS  AND  NARCOTICS. 

FOR    THE    USE     OF    JUNIOR    CLASSES    AND    COMMON     SCHOOLS. 

BY 

JOEL    DORMAN   STEELE    PH.D. 


A.     S.     BARNES     &    COMPANY, 

NEW    YORK    AND    CHICAGO. 

(Copyright,  1873,  188k.) 


tiVCftl   I*": 

•  •  «.    .  ',*      .  "PME*  FbORTEEN-WEEKS    SERIES 

IN 

NATURAL    SCIENCE 

BY 

J.     DORMAN    STEELE,    PH.D.,    F.G.S. 

New   Physics.  Human   Physiology. 

New   Chemistry.  Zoology. 

Popular  Geology.  Botany. 

New   Descriptive  Astronomy. 

Hygienic  Physiology. 

Hygienic   Physiology,   Abridged. 

The  Publishers  can  supply  (to  Teachers  only)  a  Key  containing  Answers 
to  the  Questions  and  Problems  in  Steele's  entire  Series. 

__:_^ 
BARNES'    HISTORICAL     SERIES, 

ON     THE     PLAN     OF 

STEELE'S    FOURTEEN-WEEKS     IN     THE     SCIENCES. 

A   Brief   History  of  the   United   States. 
A   Brief  History  of  France. 

A   Brief  History  of  Ancient   Peoples. 

A   Brief  History  of  Mediaeval   and    Modern   Peoples. 
A   Brief  General    History. 

A   Brief  History  of  Greece. 

A   Brief   History   of   Rome.     (Nearly  Ready.) 

A  Popular  History  of  the   United   States. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS. 


OEEING  is  believing, — more  than  that,  it  is  often 
O  knowing  and  remembering.  The  mere  reading 
of  a  statement  is  of  little  value  compared  with  the 
observation  of  a  fact.  Every  opportunity  should 
therefore  be  taken  of  exhibiting  to  the  pupil  the 
phenomena  described,  and  thus  making  them  real. 
It  is  hoped  that  the  simple  Experiments  scattered 
through  the  text  will  be  performed.  The  skilful 
teacher  will  be  able  to  draw  from  them  much  valu- 
able instruction.  A  microscope  is  indispensable  to 
the  proper  understanding  of  Physiology.  A  suitable 
instrument  and  carefully  prepared  specimens  show- 
ing the  structure  of  the  bones,  the  skin,  and  the 
blood  of  various  animals,  the  pigment  cells  of  the 
eye,  etc.,  may  be  obtained  at  a  small  cost  from  the 
Publishers  of  this  book. 

On  naming  the  subject  of  a  paragraph,  the  pupil 
should  be  prepared  to  tell  all  he  knows  about  it.  No 
failure  should  discourage  the  teacher  in  establishing 
this  mode  of  study  and  recitation.  A  little  practice 
will  produce  the  most  satisfactory  results.  The  un- 
expected question  and  the  apt  reply  develop  a  certain 

5  43510 


6  SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS. 

sharpness  and  readiness  which  are  worthy  of  cultiva- 
tion. The  Practical  Questions,  the  Questions  for 
Review,  or  any  other  that  the  wit  of  the  teacher  may 
suggest,  can  be  effectively  used  to  break  the  mono- 
tony of  a  topical  recitation,  thereby  securing  the 
benefits  of  both  systems.  Many  additional  Practical 
Questions,  and  interesting  Notes  will  be  found  in  the 
Hygienic  Physiology. 

The  pupil  should  expect  to  \>e  questioned  each  day 
upon  any  subject  passed  over  during  the  term,  and 
thus  the  entire  knowledge  gained  will  be  within  his 
grasp  for  instant  use.  While  some  are  reciting  to  the 
teacher,  let  others  write  on  slates  or  on  the  black- 
board. At  the  close  of  the  recitation  let  all  criticise 
the  ideas,  the  spelling,  the  use  of  capitals,  the  pronun- 
ciation, the  grammar,  and  the  mode  of  expression. 
Greater  accuracy  and  much  collateral  drill  may  thus 
be  secured  at  little  expense  of  valuable  school-time. 

The  Introduction  is  designed  merely  to  furnish 
suggestive  material  for  the  first  lesson,  preparatory 
to  beginning  the  study.  Other  topics  may  be  found 
in  the  questions  given  in  the  Appendix. 

To  the  description  of  each  organ  is  appended  an 
account  of  its  most  common  diseases,  accidents,  etc. , 
and,  when  practicable,  their  mode  of  treatment.  A 
pupil  may  thus  learn,  for  example,  the  cause  and  cure 
of  a  cold,  the  management  of  a  wound,  or  the  nature 
of  an  inflammation. 

In  the  Appendix  will  be  found  Questions  for  Re- 
view, Hints  about  the  sick-room,  Suggestions  as  to 
"what  to  do  till  the  doctor  comes,"  Antidotes  for 
poisons,  a  Glossary,  and  an  Index. 


TABLE    OF   CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

INTRODUCTION 9 

I. 
THE    SKEL ETON 11 

I  I. 
THE    MUSCLES 25 

III. 
THE    SKIN 35 

I  V  . 
RESPIRATION  AND    THE     VOICE 49 

V. 
THE    CIRCULATION ^7 

VI. 
DIGESTION    AND    FOOD 91 

VII. 
THE  NER VOUS  SYSTEM.  .  115 


TABLE  OF   CONTENTS. 
VIII. 

PAGE 

THE  SPECIAL   SENSES 139 

1.  TOUCH 139 

2.  TASTE 141 

3.  SMELL 142 

4.  HEARING 143 

5.  SIGHT 145 

IX. 

CONCLUSION 155 

X. 

APPENDIX 159 

1.  HINTS  ABOUT  THE  SICK-ROOM 159 

2.  DISINFECTANTS    l6o 

3.  WHA  T  TO  DO  "  TILL   THE  DOCTOR  COMES1' 160 

4.  ANTIDOTES  TO  POISONS 166 

5.  QUESTIONS  FOR  REVIEW 168 

6.  GLOSSARY 183 

7.  INDEX 189 


INTRODUCTION. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  STUDY  in  youth  is  of  in- 
estimable value.  Precious  lives  are  frequently 
lost  through  ignorance.  Thousands  squander 
in  early  years  the  strength  which  should  have  been  kept 
for  the  work  of  real  life.  Habits  are  often  formed  in 
youth  which  entail  weakness  and  poverty  upon  manhood, 
and  are  a  cause  of  life-long  regret.  The  use  of  a  strained 
limb  may  permanently  damage  it.  Some  silly  feat  of 
strength  may  produce  an  irreparable  injury.  A  thought- 
less hour  of  reading  by  twilight  may  impair  the  sight  for 
life.  A  terrible  accident  may  happen,  and  a  dear  friend 
perish  before  our  eyes,  while  we  stand  by  powerless  to 
render  the  assistance  we  could  so  easily  give  did  we  "  only 
know  what  to  do."  The  thousand  little  hints  which  may 
save  or  lengthen  life,  may  repel  or  abate  disease,  and  the 
simple  laws  which  regulate  our  bodily  vigor,  should  be  so 
familiar  that  we  may  be  quick  to  apply  them  in  an  emer- 
gency. The  preservation  of  health  is  easier  than  the  cure 
of  disease.  Childhood  cannot  afford  to  wait  for  the  les- 
son of  experience  which  is  learned  only  when  the  penalty 
of  violated  law  has  been  already  incurred,  and  health 
irrevocably  lost. 

Nature's  Laws  Inviolable.  —  In  infancy,  we  learn 
how  terribly  Nature  punishes  a  violation  of  certain  laws, 
and  how  promptly  she  applies  the  penalty.  We  soon  find 
out  the  peril  of  fire,  falls,  edged-tools,  and  the  like.  We 
fail,  however,  to  notice  the  equally  sharp  and  certain 


10  INTRODUCTION. 

punishments  which  bad  habits  entail.  We  are  quick  to 
feel  the  need  of  food,  but  not  so  ready  to  perceive  the 
danger  of  an  excess.  A  lack  of  air  drives  us  at  once  to 
secure  a  supply ;  but  foul  air  is  as  fatal,  yet  gives  us  no 
warning. 

Nature  provides  a  little  training  for  us  at  the  outset  of 
life,  but  leaves  the  most  for  us  to  learn  by  bitter  expe- 
rience. So  in  youth  we  throw  away  our  strength  as  if  it 
were  a  burden  of  which  we  desired  to  be  rid.  We  eat 
anything,  and  at  any  time  ;  do  anything  we  please,  and 
sit  up  any  number  of  nights  with  little  or  no  sleep.  Be- 
cause we  feel  only  a  momentary  discomfort  from  these 
physical  sins,  we  fondly  imagine  when  that  is  gone  we  are 
all  right  again.  Our  drafts  upon  our  constitution  are 
promptly  paid,  and  we  expect  this  will  always  be  the  case; 
but  some  day  they  will  come  back  to  us  protested;  Nature 
will  refuse  to  meet  our  demands,  and  we  shall  find  our- 
selves physical  bankrupts. 

We  are  furnished  in  the  beginning  with  a  certain  vital 
force  upon  which  we  may  draw.  We  can  be  spendthrifts 
and  waste  it  in  youth,  or  be  wise  and  so  husband  it  to 
manhood.  Our  shortcomings  are  all  charged  against  this 
stock.  Nature's  memory  never  fails  :  she  keeps  her  ac- 
count with  perfect  exactness.  Every  physical  sin  sub- 
tracts from  the  sum  and  strength  of  our  years.  We  may 
cure  a  disease,  but  it  never  leaves  us  as  it  found  us.  We 
may  heal  a  wound,  but  the  scar  still  shows.  We  reap  as 
we  sow,  and  we  may  either  gather  in  the  thorns,  one  by 
one,  to  torment  and  destroy,  or  rejoice  in  the  happy  har- 
vest of  a  hale  old  age. 


THE    SKELETON. 


THE  Skeleton,  or  framework  of  the  "  House  we 
live  in,"  is  composed  of  about  200  bones.     The 
number  varies  in  different  periods  of  life,  several 
which  are  separated  in  youth  becoming  united  in  old 


The  Uses  of  the  Bones  are  chiefly  :  First,  to  pro- 
tect the  delicate  organs  within  us  ;  Second,  to  aid  the 
muscles  in  producing  motion ;  and  Third,  to  keep 
the  body  in  shape. 

The  Forms  of  the  Bones  are  adapted  to  their 
various  uses. 

Experiment.— Cut  a  sheet  of  foolscap  into  two  pieces.  Make  of  one 
a  firm,  hollow  roll,  and  of  the  other  a  close,  flat  strip.  Support  the  ends 
of  each,  and  hang  weights  in  the  middle.  The  roll  will  bear  a  much  heavier 
weight  than  the  strip. 

Now,  in  our  limbs,  we  need  size,  strength,  and 
lightness,  in  order  to  carry  burdens,  to  bear  the  body 
in  walking,  and  to  furnish  a  support  for  the  muscles  ; 
hence,  we  here  find  long,  round,  hollow  bones.  Over 
cavities  we  have  flat  bones,  and  where  we  require 
strength  in  a  small  space  we  have  short,  thick  ones. 

The  Bones  are  Composed  of  animal  and  mineral 
matter,  the  proportion  varying  with  the  age. 

Experiments. — 1.  Take  two  bones.  Soak  one  in  weak  muriatic  acid, 
and  burn  the  other  in  the  fire.  The  shape  of  both  will  remain  unchanged, 


THE  SKELETON. 


•HuV^S?  oTiB'becotme;s.'«i  tqugh,  gristly  substance  (cartilage),  while  the  other 
can  be  crumbled  into  powder.  The  acid  has  destroyed  the  mineral,  the  fire 
has  consumed  the  animal,  matter.  2.  Mix  a  wineglass  of  muriatic  acid 
with  a  pint  of  water,  and  place  in  it  a  sheep's  rib.  In  a  day  or  two,  the 
bone  will  be  so  soft  that  it  can  be  tied  into  a  knot.  3.  In  the  same  way, 
an  egg  may  be  made  so  pliable  that  it  can  be  crowded  into  a  narrow-necked 
bottle,  within  which  it  will  expand,  and  become  an  object  of  great  curiosity 
to  the  uninitiated.  4.  Compare  the  breast-bone  of  a  young  and  an  old  fowl. 

We  thus  see  that  a  bone  receives  hardness  and 
Fig.  2.  rigidity  from  its  mineral,  and  tenacity 
and  elasticity  from  its  animal,  matter. 

All  b(jnes  are  at  first  either  simple 
tissue  or  cartilage,  which  gradually  os- 
sifies (turns  to  bone).  Certain  portions 
near  the  joints  ossify  very  slowly,  and 
so,  meantime,  keep  tough  and  elastic. 
Hence  the  bones  of  children  are  not 
readily  fractured,  and  when  broken 
easily  heal  again  ;  while  those  of  elderly 
people  are  liable  to  fracture,  and  do  not 
quickly  unite. 

The  Structure  of  the  Bones  may  be 
easily  illustrated. 

Experiments. — 1.  Saw  a  bone  lengthwise.     You 
will  find  it  filled  with  a  spongy  substance.    At  the  ends, 
where  size  is  required  to  make  a  strong  joint,  this  filling 
is  abundant  and  porous  ;  while,  near  the  middle,  where 
strength  alone  is  needed,   the  bone  itself  is  thicker. 
Each  fiber  of  this  filling  eases  the  shock  of  a  sudden 
blow.     2.   Examine  a  freshly-cut  bone.     It  is  not  the 
The  thigh-bone^or     dry,  lifeless  thing  you  may  have  supposed,  but  a  moist, 
Ur^ihwlse.  pinkish  structure,  covered  with  a  ^ough  membrane,  and 

containing   a   rich   fat   marrow,   full   of   blood-vessels. 


GROWTH  OF  THE  BONES.  3' 

3.  Put  a  thin  slice  under  the  microscope.     You  will  'see*  MacV  spbtS,  ^fath '' 
lines  running  in  all  directions,  and  looking  very  like  minute  insects.     The 
spots  are  little  cavities,  and  the  lines  are  tiny  tubes. 

Growth  of  the  Bones. — The  blood  circulates  freely 
through  the  bones,  and  the  whole  bone-structure  is 
constantly  but  slowly  changing,  old  material  being 
taken  out  and  new  put  in.  A  curious  illustration  is 
seen  in  the  fact  that  if  madder  be  mixed  with  the 
food  of  pigs,  it  will  tinge  their  bones  red. 

Repair  of  the  Bones. — If  you  break  a  bone,  the 
blood  at  once  oozes  out  of  the  fractured  ends.  After- 
ward comes  a  watery  fluid,  which  in  a  fortnight 
thickens  to  a  gristly  substance  strong  enough  to  hold 
them  together.  Bone-matter  is  then  slowly  depos- 
ited, which  in  five  or  six  weeks  will  unite  the  broken 
parts. 

A  broken  limb  should  always  be  held  in  place  by 
splints ;  a  sudden  jar  might  rupture  the  partially- 
mended  break.  As,  for  a  long  time,  the  new  portion 
consists  largely  of  animal  matter,  and  so  is  tender 
and  pliable,  great  care  is  necessary  to  prevent  a  mis- 
shape of  the  bone. 

The  Joints  are  packed  with  a  soft,  smooth  carti- 
lage, or  gristle.  In  addition,  the  ends  of  the  bones 
are  covered  with  a  thin  membrane  that  secretes  a 
fluid,  not  unlike  the  white  of  an  egg,  which  prevents 
the  noise  and  wear  of  friction.  The  body  is  the  only 

v" 

niachine  that  oils  itself. 

The  bones  which  form  the  joint  are  tied  with  stout 
ligaments,  or  bands,  of  a  smooth,  silvery-white  tis- 
sue, so  strong  that  the  bones  are  sometimes  broken 
without  injuring  the  fastenings. 


THE  SKELETON. 

Fiq.  3. 


The  8fcuZl.—l,  frontal  bone  ;  2,  parietal  bone ;  5,  temporal  bone  ;  A,  the  sphenoid 
bone ;  5,  ethmoid  bone ;  6,  superior  maxillary  (upper  jaw)  bone  ;  7,  malar  bone  • 
8,  lachrymal  bone ;  9,  nasal  bone ;  10,  inferior  maxillary  (lower  jaw)  bone» 

Classification  of  the  Bones. — For  convenience,  the 
bones  of  the  skeleton  are  considered  in  three  divi- 
sions :  the  head,  the  trunk,  and  the  limbs. 

1.  The  Head. — THE  BONES  OF  THE  SKULL  AND  FACE 
form  a  cavity  for  the  brain.  None  moves  except  the 
lower  jaw,  which  is  hinged  at  the  back. 

Experiment. — Try  in  how  many  different  directions  you  can  move 
your  jaw,  and  find  what  muscles  you  use. 

THE  SKULL-BONES  are  composed  of  two  compact 
plates,  with  a  spongy  layer  between.  These  are  in 
several  pieces,  the  outer  ones  being  joined  by  notched 
edges  (sutures,  sut'yurs)  in  a  way  carpenters  term 
dove-tailing. 


THE  TRUNK. 


15 


Fig.  U. 


The  skull  is,  in  fact,  a  strong  bone-box  which  shel- 
ters the  brain — an  organ  so  delicate  that,  if  unpro- 
tected, an  ordinary  blow  would  destroy  it.  Its  egg 
shape  adapts  it  to  resist  pressure. 
The  smaller  and  stronger  end  is  in 
front,  where  the  danger  is  greatest. 
Projections  before  and  behind  shield 
the  less  protected  parts.  The  hard 
plates  resist,  and  the  spongy  packing 
deadens,  every  blow.  The  dove-tailed 
joinings  disperse  jars  and  prevent 
fractures  from  spreading,  while  the 
frequent  openings  afford  safe  pas- 
sage for  nerves  and  blood-vessels  to 
the  other  parts  of  the  body. 

2.  The  Trunk.— THE  TRUNK  has  two 
important  cavities.  The  upper  part, 
or  chest,  contains  the  heart  and  the 
lungs,  and  the  lower  part,  or  abdomen, 
holds  the  stomach,  liver,  kidneys,  and 
other  organs  (Fig.  27).  The  principal 
bones  are  those  of  the  spine,  the  ribs, 
and  the  hips. 

THE  SPINE  consists  of  twenty-four 
les  (vertebra),  between  which  are 
placed  pads  of  cartilage.  Within  the 
column  is  a  canal  for  the  spinal  cord. 
Strong  projections  at  the  back  and 
on  either  side  are  abundant  for  the 
attachment  of  the  muscles.  The 
packing  acts  as  a  cushion  to  prevent  the  jar  from 
reaching  the  brain  when  we  jump  or  run  while  the 
double  curve  disperses  the  force  of  a  fall. 


16  THE  SKELETON. 

THE  PERFECTION  OF  THE  SPINE  surpasses  all  human 
contrivances.  A  chain  of  twenty-four  bones  is  at 
once  so  stiff  that  it  will  bear  a  heavy  burden,  and  so 
flexible  that  it  will  bend  like  rubber.  Resting  upon  it, 
the  brain  is  borne  without  a  tremor ;  clinging  to  it,  the 
vital  organs  are  carried  without  fear  of  harm  ;  and, 
snugly  hidden  within  it,  lies  a  delicate  nerve  that 
would  thrill  with  the  slightest  touch. 


A 

B,  the  first  cervical  vertebra,  the  atlas ;  A,  the  atlas,  and  the  second  cervical  vertebra 
the  axis ;  e,  the  odontoid  process ;  c,  the  foramen. 

THE  JOINT  BETWEEN  THE  SKULL  AND  THE  SPINE  is 
A  VERY  PECULIAR  ONE. — On  the  top  of  the  upper 
vertebra  (atlas)  are  two  little  hollows  (a,  b,  Fig.  5), 
into  which  fit  the  corresponding  projections  on  the 
lower  part  of  the  skull,  and  thus  the  head  can  rock 
to  and  fro.  The  second  vertebra  (axis)  has  a  peg,  e, 
which  projects  through  a  hole,  c,  in  the  first.  Thus, 
when  we  move  the  head  side  wise,  the  atlas  turns 
round  the  peg  of  the  axis. 

THE  BIBS,  also  twenty-four  in  number,  are  ar- 
ranged in  pairs  on  each  side  of  the  chest.  At  the 
back,  they  are  all  attached  to  the  spine.  In  front, 
the  upper  seven  pairs  are  tied  by  cartilages  to  the 
breast-bone ;  three  are  fastened  to  each  other  and 


THE   TRUNK.  17 

the  cartilage  above,  and  two,  the  floating  ribs,  are 
loose. 

If  the   chest-wall  were  a  single,   thick  bone,   it 
would  be  heavy,  and  unwieldy.    As  it  is,  the  long, 


The  Thorax,  or  Chest:  a,  the  sternum,  or  breast-bone;  b  to  c,  the  true  ribs:  d 
to  h,  the  false  ribs ;  g,  h,  the  floating  ribs ;  i  k,  the  dorsal  vertebrae.. 

slender  ribs,  the  arched  form,  and  the  connecting 
cartilages  furnish  lightness,  strength,  and  elasticity, 
— just  what  we  need  to  breathe  easily,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  to  protect  the  delicate  organs  within. 
The  natural  chest  is  smaller  at  the  top  than  at  the 
bottom,  but  our  tight  clothing  often  reverses  this 
shape. 

THE  HIP-BONES  form  a  kind  of  basin  (pelvis).  In 
the  upper  part,  is  the  foot  of  the  spinal  column — a 
wedge-shaped  bone  firmly  planted  between  the  solid 


18 


THE   SKELETON. 


bones  of  the  hip,  like  the  keystone  to  an  arch, — a 
steady  support  to  the  heavy  burden  above. 


Fig.  7. 


The  Pelvis  (a  basin) ;  a,  the  sacrum  (sacred) ;  b,  b,  the  right  and  left  innominata,  cr 


Fig.  8. 


3.  The  Limbs. — Two  SETS  OF  LIMBS  branch  from 
the  trunk,  viz. :  the  upper,  and 
the  lower.  They  closely  resem- 
ble each  other.  The  arm  cor- 
responds to  the  thigh ;  the 
fore-arm,  to  the  leg ;  the  wrist, 
to  the  ankle  ;  the  fingers,  to  the 
toes. 

1.  THE  UPPER  LIMBS. — The 
Shoulder.  —  The  bones  of  the 
shoulder  are  the  collar-bone 
(clavicle),  and  the  shoulder- 
blade  (scapula). 

The  clavicle  is  a  long,  slen- 
der bone,  shaped  like  the  Italic 

The  Shoulder-joint :  a,  the  clav-     /•       Tj.  •     .<•      j.       '    j      j.  -ij. 

icie ;  b,  the  scapula.        / •     J-t  is  fastened,  at  one  end  to 


THE  LIMBS. 


19 


Fig.  9. 


the  breast-bone  and  the  first  rib,  and,  at  the  other, 
to  the  shoulder-blade.  It  thus  holds  the  shoulder- 
joint  out  from  the  chest,  and  gives  the  arm  greater 
play. 

The  Shoulder-blade  is  a  thin,  flat,  triangular  bone, 
fitted  to  the  top  and  back  of  the  chest,  making  a 
foundation  for  the  muscles  of  the  shoulder. 

The  Shoulder-joint. — The  arm-bone,  or  humerus, 
is  attached  to  the  shoulder-blade  by  a  ball-and-socket 
joint.  This  consists  of  a  cup-like  cavity  in  the  latter 
bone,  and  a  rounded  head  in  the  former  to  fit  it,— 
thus  allowing  a  free  rotary  motion.  The  shallow 
socket  causes  a  frequent  dis- 
location of  this  joint,  but  a 
deep  one  would  spoil  the  easy 
swing  of  the  arm. 

The  Elbow. — At  the  elbow, 
the  humerus  is  attached  to 
the  ulna — a  slender  bone  on 
the  inner  side  of  the  fore-arm 
— by  a  hinge- joint  which  ad- 
mits of  motion  only  backward 
and  forward.  The  head  of  the 
radius,  or  large  bone  of  the 
fore-arm,  is  convex  at  the 
elbow,  and  fits  into  a  shallow 
cavity  in  the  ulna,  while  at 
the  wrist  the  ulna  plays  in  a 
similar  socket  in  the  radius. 
Thus  the  radius  may  roll  over 

the  ulna.  Bones  of  right  Fwe-arm;  B.,tM 

rm,       Trr    •  ±  -   j.        £   4.          humenis ;   R,  the  radius;  U,  Ot* 

The  Wrist  consists  of  two  uina. 


THE  SKELETON. 


Fig.  10. 


rows  of  irregular  bones,  one  of  which  is  attached  to 
the  fore-arm;  the  other,  to  the  hand.  They  are 
placed  side  to  side  and  so  firmly  fastened  as  to  admit 
of  only  a  gliding  motion.  This  gives  little  play,  but 
great  strength,  elasticity,  and  power  of  resisting 
shocks. 

The  Hand. — The  bones  of  the  palm  support  each  a 
thumb  or  finger.     Each  finger  has  three  bones,  but 

the  thumb  has  only  two. 
The  first  bone  of  the  thumb, 
standing  apart  from  the 
rest,  enjoys  a  special  free- 
dom of  motion,  and  adds 
greatly  to  the  usefulness  of 
the  hand. 

The  first  bone  of  each 
finger  is  so  attached  to  the 
corresponding  bone  of  the 
palm  as  to  move  in  several 
directions  upon  it,  but  the 
others  have  simple  hinge - 
joints. 

The  fingers  are  named  in 
order :  the  thumb,  the  in- 
dex, the  middle,  the  ring, 

and  the  little  finger.  Their  different  lengths  cause 
them  to  fit  the  hollow  of  the  hand  when  it  is  closed, 
and  probably  enable  us  more  easily  to  grasp  objects 
of  varying  size. 


Bones  of  the  Hand  and  the  Wrist. 


Experiment. — If  you  clasp  a  ball  with  your  hand,  the  tips  of  your 
fingers  will  form  a  straight  line. 


The  Hip-joint. 

2.  THE  LOWER  LIMBS. — The  Hip. — The  thigh-bone, 
or  femur,  which,  at  every  step,  has  to  bear  our 
weight,  is  the  largest  and  strongest  in  the  skeleton. 
It  is  attached  to  the  hip-bone  by  a  ball-and-socket 
joint.  Unlike  the  shoulder- joint,  the  cup  here  is 
deep,  thus  affording  less  play,  but  greater  strength. 

The  Knee  is  strengthened  by  the  knee-pan  (patella, 
little  dish),  a  chestnut-shaped  bone  firmly  fastened 
over  the  joint. 

The  shin-bone  (tibia),  the  large,  triangular  bone 
on  the  inner  side  of  the  leg,  is  attached  to  both  the 
femur  and  the  foot  by  a  hinge- joint.  The  knee-joint 
admits  of  a  slight  rotary  motion  when  the  limb  is 
not  extended. 

The  fibula  (fibula,  a  clasp),  the  small,  outside  bone 
of  the  leg,  is  strongly  bound  at  both  ends  to  the  tibia 


22  THE  SKELETON. 

(Fig.  1).  It  is  immovable,  and,  as  the  tibia  bears  the 
principal  weight  of  the  body,  the  chief  use  of  this 
second  bone  seems  to  be  to  give  more  surface  to 
which  the  muscles  may  be  attached. 

The  Foot. — The  graceful  arch  of  the  foot,  and  the 
numerous  bones  joined  by  cartilages  (Fig.  1),  give  an 
elasticity  to  the  step  that  could  never  be  attained  by 
a  single,  flat  bone.  The  toes  naturally  lie  straight 
forward  in  the  line  of  the  foot.  Few  persons  in  civ- 
ilized nations,  however,  have  naturally-formed  feet. 
The  big  toe  is  crowded  upon  the  others,  while  crossed 
toes,  in-growing  nails,  corns,  and  bunions  abound. 

The  cause  of  these  deformities  is  found  in  the  shape 
and  size  of  fashionable  boots  and  shoes.  Narrow 
points  pinch  our  toes,  and  compel  them  to  override 
one  another ;  narrow  soles  compress  the  arch  ;  while 
high  heels,  by  throwing  all  the  weight  forward  on 
the  toes,  strain  and  enlarge  the  ankle. 

When  we  are  measured  for  boots  or  shoes,  we 
should  stand  on  a  sheet  of  paper,  and  have  the  shoe- 
maker mark  with  a  pencil  the  exact  outline  of  our 
feet  as  they  bear  our  whole  weight.  When  the  shoe 
is  made,  the  sole  should  exactly  cover  this  outline, 
while  the  heels  should  be  low,  flat,  and  broad. 

Diseases. — 1.  THE  RICKETS  are  caused  by  a  lack  of  mineral  matter 
in  the  bones,  rendering  them  soft  and  pliable,  so  that  they  bend  under  the 
weight  of  the  body.  The  disease  is  cured  by  a  more  nutritious  diet,  or  by 
taking  phosphate  of  lime  to  supply  the  lack. 

2.  BOWLEGS  are  produced  by  children  standing  on  their  feet  before  the 
bones  of  the  lower  limbs  are  strong  enough  to  bear  their  weight.  A  young 
child  should  never  be  urged  to  stand.  Nature  will  set  him  on  his  feet 
when  the  proper  time  comes. 


PRACTICAL  QUESTIONS.  23 

3.  CURVATURE  OF  THE  SPINE. — When  the  spine  is  bent,  the  packing 
between  the  vertebrae  becomes  compressed  on  one  side  into  a  wedge-like  shape. 
After  a  time,  it  will  lose  its  elasticity,  and  the  spine  become  distorted.    This 
occurs  in  the  case  of  students  who  bend  forward  to  bring  their  eyes  nearer 
their  books,  instead  of  lifting  their  books  nearer  their  eyes,  or  who  raise 
their  right  shoulder  above  their  left  when  writing  at  a  desk  which  is  too 
high.     Round  shoulders,  small,  weak  lungs,  and,  oftentimes,  diseases  of 
the  spine  are  the  consequences.     An  erect  posture  in  reading  or  writing 
conduces  not  alone  to  beauty  of  form,  but  also  to  health  of  body. 

4.  SPRAINS  are  produced  when  the  ligaments  which  bind  the  bones  of 
a  joint  are  strained,  twisted,  or  torn  from  their  attachments.     They  are 
quite  as  harmful  as  a  broken  bone,  and  require  careful  attention,  lest  they 
lead  to  a  crippling  for  life.     The  use  of  a  sprained  limb  may  permanently 
impair  its  strength. 

5.  A  DISLOCATION  is  produced  by  the  rupture  of  the  tissues  of  the  joint 
so  that  the  head  of  the  bone  is  driven  out  of  its  socket  and  into  some  other 
place  both  by  the  force  of  the  blow  which  caused  the  injury  and  by  the 
contraction  of  the  muscles. 


PRACTICAL     QUESTIONS. 

1.  Why  does  not  a  fall  hurt  a  child  as  much  as  it  does  a  grown  person  ? 

2.  Should  a  young  child  ever  be  urged  to  stand  or  walk  ? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  "breaking  one's  neck  "  ? 

4.  Should  chairs  or  benches  have  straight  backs  ? 

5.  Should  a  child's  feet  be  allowed  to  dangle  from  a  high  seat  ? 

6.  Why  can  we  tell  whether  a  fowl  is  young  by  pressing  on  the  point  oi 
the  breast-bone  ? 

7.  What  is  the  use  of  the  marrow  in  the  bones  ? 

8.  Why  is  the  shoulder  so  often  put  out  of  joint  ? 

9.  How  can  you  tie  a  knot  in  a  bone  ? 

10.  Why  are  high  pillows  injurious  ? 

11.  Why  should  we  not  wear  narrow-toed  shoes  ? 

12.  Should  a  boot  have  a  heel-piece  ? 


THE  SKELETON. 

13.  Why  should  one  always  sit  and  walk  erect  ? 

14.  Why  does  a  young  child  creep  rather  than  walk  ? 

15.  What  is  the  natural  direction  of  the  big  toe  ? 


OF    THE 


Frontal  Bone  (forehead). 
Two  Parietal  bones. 

1   CRANIUM  '  Two  TemPoral  (temple)  bones. 

1.  URANIUM -,  Sphenoid  bone. 

I  Ethmoid  (sieve-like  bone  at  root  of  nose). 
(_  Occipital  bone  (back  and  base  of  skull). 

(  Two  Superior  Maxillary  (upper  jaw)  bones. 
O  I  Inferior  Maxillary  (lower  jaw)  bone. 

^  ^  Two  Malar  (cheek)  bones. 

H  I  |  Two  Lachrymal  bones. 

J  '  ii  FACE •<  Two  Turbinated  (scroll-like)  bones,  each  side 

(Ik  bones).  of  nose. 

5  «*,  Two  Nasal  bones  (bridge  of  nose). 

1  Vomer  (the  bone  between  the  nostrils). 
Two  Palate  bones. 

:    f  Hammer. 

3.  EARS -   Anvil. 

I      (6  bones).  (  Stirrup. 

(  Cervical  Vertebrae  (seven  vertebrae  of  the  neck). 
1.  SPINAL  COLUMN.  •<  Dorsal  Vertebrae  (twelve  vertebrae  of  the  back). 
(  Lumbar  Vertebrae  (five  vertebrae  of  the  loins). 

P     §  ^     9   -R™,,  <i  True  Eibs. 

g  g      2'  RIBS I  False  Ribs. 

i-l     «»  2  -i  &  STERNUM  (breast-bone). 

4.  Os  HYOIDES  (bone  at  the  root  of  tongue). 
03 

(  Two  Innominata. 

5.  PELVIS •<  Sacrum. 

(  Coccyx. 

E-i 

{Arm -!  l?iUmerUH--P 
)  Ulna  and  Radius. 
(  Eight  Wrist  or  Carpal  bones. 
Hand •<  Five  Metacarpal  bones. 

(  Phalanges  (14  bones). 

S(  Femur. 
(Leg -{Patella. 

( Tibia  and  Fibula. 
H          2.  LOWER  LIMBS  ...-< 

(60  bones.)  (  Seven  Tareal  bones. 

V,  Foot •<  Five  Metatarsal  bones. 

(  Phalanges  (14  bones.) 


THE    MUSCLES. 


rpHE  Use  of  the  Muscles.— The  skeleton  is  the 
-L  image  of  death.  Its  unsightly  appearance  in- 
stinctively repels  us.  We  have  seen,  however,  what 
uses  it  subserves  in  the  body,  and  how  the  ugly- 
looking  bones  abound  in  nice  contrivances  and  inge- 
nious workmanship.  In  life,  the  framework  is  hidden 
by  the  flesh.  This  covering  is  a  mass  of  muscles, 
which  not  only  give  form  and  symmetry  to  the  body, 
but  also  produce  its  varied  movements. 

Contractility. — The  peculiar  property  of  the  muscles 
is  their  power  of  contraction.  It  does  not  cease  at 
death,  but,  in  certain  cold-blooded  animals,  is  often 
noticed  long  after  the  head  has  been  cut  off. 

Arrangement  of  the  Muscles. — The  muscles  are 
nearly  all  arranged  in  pairs,  each  with  its  antag- 
onist, so  that,  as  they  contract  and  expand  alter- 
nately, the  bone  to  which  they  are  attached  is  moved 
to  and  fro. 

Experiments. — Grasp  your  arm  tightly  with  your  hand  just  above 
the  elbow-joint,  and  bend  the  fore-arm.  You  will  feel  the  inside  muscle 
(biceps)  swell  and  become  hard  and  prominent,  while  the  outside  muscle 
(triceps)  will  relax.  Now  straighten  the  arm,  and  the  swelling  and  hard- 
ness of  the  inside  muscle  will  vanish,  while  the  outside  one  will  become 
rigid.  2.  Clasp  the  arm  just  below  the  elbow,  and  then  open  and  shut  the 
fingers.  You  will  feel  the  alternate  expanding  and  relaxing  of  the  muscles 


26  THE  MUSCLES. 

on  opposite  sides  of  the  arms.  3.  Place  your  hand  on  your  temple,  and 
chew.  You  will  feel  the  contraction  of  one  of  the  muscles  that  work  the 
lower  jaw. 

Kinds  of  Muscles. — There  are  two  kinds  of  mus- 
cles, the  voluntary,  which  are  under  the  control  of 
our  will,  and  the  involuntary,  which  are  not.  Thus 
our  limbs  stiffen  or  relax  as  we  please,  but  the  heart 
beats  on  by  day  and  by  night.  The  eyelid,  however, 
is  both  voluntary  and  involuntary,  so  that  while  we 
wink  unconsciously,  we  can  also  control  the  motion. 

Structure  of  the  Muscles.  —  Each  muscle  is  com- 
posed of  a  multitude  of  tiny  fibers. 

Experiments. — 1.  Wash  out  the  red  color  from  a  piece  of  lean  beef. 
You  can  easily  detect  the  fine  fibers  of  which  the  meat  is  composed.  In 
boiling  corned  beef,  the  fibers  often  separate,  owing  to  the  dissolving  of  the 
delicate  tissue  which  bound  them  together.  2.  Place  a  fiber  under  a  micro- 
scope. You  will  find  it  made  up  of  minute  filaments  (fibrils],  each  fibril 
composed  of  a  row  of  tiny  cells  arranged  like  a  string  of  beads. 

Fig.  18. 


Microscopic  view  of  a  Muscle,  showing,  at  one  end,  thefibrillce  ;  and,  at  the  other, 
the  disks,  or  cells,  of  the  fiber. 


The  binding  of  so  many  threads  into  one  bundle 
confers  great  strength.  We  see  this  illustrated  in 
suspension  bridges,  where  the  weight  is  sustained  by 
small  wires  twisted  into  massive  ropes. 

The  Tendons.—  The  ends  of  the  muscles  are  gen- 


THE  TENDONS. 


27 


erally  attached  to  the  bone  by  strong,  flexible,  but 
inelastic  tendons. 

Experiment. — Compare  the  muscles  and  tendons  in  the  roasted  leg 
of  a  fowl. 

The  muscular  fibers  spring  from  the  sides  of  the 
tendon,  so  that  more  of  them 
can  act  upon  the  bone  than  if 
they  went  directly  to  it.  Be- 
sides, the  small,  insensible  ten- 
don can  better  bear  the  expos- 
ure of  passing  over  a  joint,  and 
be  more  easily  lodged  in  some 
protecting  groove,  than  the 
broad,  sensitive  muscle.  This 
mode  of  attachment  gives  to 
the  limbs  strength,  and  ele- 
gance of  form.  Thus,  for  ex- 
ample, if  the  large  muscles  of 
the  arm  extended  to  the  hand, 
they  would  make  it  bulky  and 
clumsy.  Even  the  tendons,  at 
the  wrist,  become  fine  cords 
that  pass  to  the  fingers. 

Here  we  notice  two  other 
admirable  arrangements.  1. 
If  the  long  tendons  at  the 
wrist  on  contracting  should 
rise,  projections  would  be  made 
and  thus  the  beauty  of  the 
joint  be  marred.  To  prevent  this,  a  stout  band  or 
bracelet  of  ligament  holds  them  down  to  their  place. 


Tendons  of  the  Hand. 


28  THE  MUSCLES. 

2.  In  order  to  allow  the  tendon  which  moves  the 
last  joint  of  the  finger  to  pass  through,  the  tendon 
which  moves  the  second  joint  divides  at  its  attach- 
ment to  the  bone.  This  is  the  most  economical  mode 
of  packing  the  muscles  so  as  not  to  increase  the  size 
of  the  slender  finger. 

Fig.  15. 


The  Muscles  of  the  Right  Eye.  A,  superior  straight :  B,  superior  oblique  passing 
through  a  pulley,  D ;  G,  inferior  oblique  ;  H,  external  straight ,  and,  back  of  it,  the 
internal  straight  muscle. 

Since  the  tendon  cannot  always  pull  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  desired  motion,  some  contrivance  is 
necessary  to  meet  the  want.  The  tendon  (B)  belong- 
ing to  one  of  the  muscles  of  the  eye,  for  example, 
passes  through  a  ring  of  cartilage  (D),  and  thus  a 
rotary  motion  is  secured. 

The  Enlargement  of  the  Bones  at  the  Joints  not 
only  gives  more  surface  for  the  attachment  of  the 


HOW  WE  STAND  ERECT. 


Fig.  16. 


muscles,  but  it  enables  them  to  work  to 
better  advantage.  Thus,  in  Fig.  16,  a 
muscle  acting  in  the  line  fb  would  not 
bend  the  lower  limb  so  easily  as  if  acting 
in  the  line  fh,  since  in  the  one  case  its 
force  would  be  about  all  spent  in  draw- 
ing the  bones  more  closely  together, 
while  in  the  other  it  would  pull  more 
nearly  at  a  right  angle.  Thus  the  ten- 


The  Knee-joint 
h,  the  patella ,' 
f,  the  tendon. 


don  /,  by  passing  over  the 
patella,  which  is  itself  pushed 
out  by  the  protuberance  b  of  the  thigh- 
bone, pulls  at  a  larger  angle,  and  so  the 
leg  is  thrown  forward  with  ease  in  walk- 
ing and  with  great  force  in  kicking. 

How  We  Stand  Erect. — It  requires  the 
action  of  many  muscles  to  hold  our 
bodies  upright.  The  head  so  rests  upon 
the  spine  as  to  tend  to  fall  in  front,  but 
the  muscles  of  the  neck  steady  it  in  its 
place.  The  hips  incline  forward,  but 
are  held  erect  by  the  strong  muscles  of 
the  back.  The  trunk  is  nicely  balanced 
on  the  head  of  the  thigh-bones.  The 
great  muscles  of  the  thigh  acting  over 
the  knee-pan  tend  to  bend  the  body  for- 
ward, but  the  muscles  of  the  calf  oppose 
this  action.  The  ankle,  the  knee,  and 
the  hip  lie  in  nearly  the  same  line,  and 
thus  the  weight  of  the  body  rests  directly 
on  the  key-stone  of  the  arch  of  the  foot. 
So  perfectly  do  these  muscles  act  that  we 


Fig.  17. 


Action  of  the 
Muscles  which 
keep  the  body 
erect. 


30  THE   MUSCLES. 

never  notice  them,  and  yet  to  learn  how  to  use  them 
in  our  infancy  needed  patient  lessons,  much  time, 
and  many  hard  knocks. 

How  We  Walk. — Walking  is  really  a  perilous  act, 
which  has  become  safe  only  because  of  constant 
practice.  Standing  on  one  foot,  we  let  the  body  fall 
forward,  and  swing  the  other  leg  ahead  like  a  pen- 
dulum. Planting  that  foot  on  the  ground,  to  save 
the  body  from  failing  further,  we  swing  the  first  foot 
forward  again  to  repeat  the  same  operation.  In 
walking,  therefore,  we  have  always  one  foot,  and 
sometimes  both  feet  on  the  ground.  In  running,  we 
incline  the  body  more,  and  so,  as  it  were,  fall  faster, 
and  there  is  an  instant  in  each  step  when  both  feet 
are  off  the  ground.  We  are  shorter  when  walking 
or  running  than  when  standing  still,  because  of  this 
falling  forward  to  take  a  step  in  advance. 

Experiment. — Stand  a  boy  erect  against  a  wall.  Mark  his  height 
with  a  stick.  Now  have  him  step  off  a  part  of  a  pace,  and  then  several 
whole  paces.  Next,  let  him  close  his  eyes,  and  walk  to  the  wall  again.  He 
will  be  perceptibly  lower  than  the  stick,  until  he  straightens  up  once  more 
from  a  walking  position. 

The  Muscular  Sense. — When  we  lift  an  object,  we 
feel  a  sensation  of  weight,  which  we  can  compare 
by  lifting  another  object.  We  can  cultivate  this 
sense  till  we  can  estimate  the  weight  of  a  body  by 
simply  balancing  it  on  the  palm  of  the  right  hand, 
that  being  generally  more  accurate  than  the  left. 
Some  parts  of  the  body  are  more  sensitive  than 
others  to  differences  in  weight. 

Experiment. — Roll  a  small  ivory  ball  down  your  cheek  toward  your 
lips,  and  it  will  appear  to  increase  in  weight. 


EXERCISE.  31 

We  gratify  the  muscular  sense  when  we  walk  erect 
and  with  an  elastic  step,  and  by  dancing,  jumping, 
skating,  and  gymnastic  exercises. 

Necessity  of  Exercise. — By  use,  the  muscles  grow 
larger,  and  become  hard,  compact,  and  darker- 
colored  ;  by  disuse,  they  decrease  in  size,  and  become 
soft,  flabby,  and  pale.  Exercise  also  sets  every 
organ  in  the  body  at  work.  The  lungs,  skin,  and 
kidneys — the  scavengers  of  the  body — hasten  to  re- 
move waste  matter,  and  a  healthful  glow  succeeds. 

Violent  Exercise,  however,  is  injurious,  since  we 
then  tear  down  faster  than  nature  can  build  up. 
Feats  of  strength  are  not  only  hurtful,  but  dangerous. 
Often  the  muscles  are  strained  or  ruptured,  and 
blood-vessels  burst  in  the  effort  to  outdo  one's  com- 
panions. Even  so  simple  an  amusement  as  jumping 
the  rope,  carried  to  excess,  has  been  known  to  cause 
sudden  death. 

Time  for  Exercise. — Do  not  exercise  when  very 
hungry,  nor  immediately  after  a  full  meal.  Only 
the  strong  and  healthy  should  exercise  before  break- 
fast, as  in  early  morning  the  pulse  is  low,  the  skin 
relaxed,  and  the  system  susceptible  to  cold.  Weak 
and  delicate  persons,  therefore,  need  to  be  braced 
with  food  before  they  brave  the  out-door  air. 

Kind  of  Exercise.  —  For  children,  the  out-door 
games  are  unequaled.  Walking  in  the  open  air  and 
sunlight  is  always  healthful.  Running  is  better, 
since  it  employs  more  muscles,  but  it  must  not  be 
pushed  to  excess,  as  it  taxes  the  heart.  Rowing 
develops  the  whole  system.  Swimming,  also,  em- 
ploys all  the  muscles,  and  is  a  valuable  acquirement, 


32  THE   MUSCLES. 

as  it  may  be  the  means  of  saving  life.  Horseback 
riding  is  a  fine  accomplishment,  and  refreshes  mind 
and  body  alike.  Gymnastic  or  calisthenic  movements, 
judiciously  used,  furnish  the  best  in-door  exercise. 

The  Law  of  Health  is  to  take  daily,  moderate  out- 
door exercise,  avoiding  extreme  fatigue.  It  is  bad 
policy  to  stimulate  the  brain  at  the  expense  of  the 
muscles,  and  recesses  should  be  as  sacred  to  play  as 
study-hours  are  to  work. 

The  Wonders  of  the  Muscles.— The  grace,  ease, 
and  rapidity  with  which  the  muscles  contract  are 
astonishing.  The  voice  may  utter  1,500  letters  in  a 
minute,  yet  each  requires  a  distinct  position  of  the 
vocal  organs.  We  train  the  muscles  of  the  fingers 
till  they  glide  over  the  keys  of  the  piano,  executing 
the  most  exquisite  and  difficult  harmony.  In  writing, 
each  letter  is  formed  by  its  peculiar  motions,  yet  we 
make  them  so  unconsciously  that  a  skilful  penman 
will  describe  beautiful  curves  while  thinking  only  of 
the  idea  that  the  sentence  is  to  express.  The  mind 
of  the  violinist  is  upon  the  music  which  his  right 
hand  is  executing,  while  his  left  determines  the 
length  of  the  string  and  the  character  of  each  note 
so  carefully  that  not  a  false  sound  is  heard,  although 
the  variation  of  a  hair's  breadth  would  cause  a  dis- 
cord. In  the  arm  of  a  blacksmith,  the  biceps  muscle 
may  grow  into  the  solidity  almost  of  a  club  ;  the 
hand  of  a  prize-fighter  will  strike  a  blow  like  a 
sledge-hammer :  while  the  engraver  traces  lines 
invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  the  fingers  of  the 
blind  acquire  a  delicacy  that  almost  supplies  the 
place  of  the  missing  sense. 


DISEASES.  33 

Diseases. — 1.  ST.  Virus's  DANCE  is  a  disease  of  the  voluntary 
muscles,  whereby  they  are  in  frequent,  irregular,  and  spasmodic  motion 
beyond  the  control  of  the  will.  It  is  closely  connected  with  a  derange- 
ment of  the  nervous  system,  and  hence  the  patient  should  be  kept  from  ex- 
citement, and  his  general  health  invigorated. 

2.  LOCKED-JAW  is  marked  by  spasms  and  a  contraction  of  the  muscles, 
usually  beginning  in  the  lower  jaw.     It  is  serious,  often  fatal,  yet  may  be 
caused  by  as  trivial  an  injury  as  the  stroke  of  a  whip-lash,  the  lodgment 
of  a  bone  in  the  throat,  a  fish-hook  in  the  finger,  or  a  prick  in  the  foot  by 
a  tack. 

3.  GOUT  is  an  acute  pain  located  chiefly  in  the  small  joints  of  the  foot, 
especially  those  of  the  great  toe,  which  swell  and  become  extremely  sensi- 
tive.    It  is  generally  brought  on  by  high  living. 

4.  RHEUMATISM  affects  mainly  the  connective,  white,  fibrous  tissue  of  the 
larger  joints.     There  are  two  common  forms — the  inflammatory  or  acute, 
and  the  chronic.     The  acute  form  is  probably  a  disease  of  the  blood,  which 
carries  with  it  some  poisonous  matter  that  is  deposited  where  the  fibrous 
tissue  is  most  abundant.     The  pain  is  extreme,  the  disease  flies  from  one 
joint  to  another,  and  there  is  always  danger  that  it  may  go  to  the  heart. 
All  violent  remedies,  therefore,  are  to  be  avoided.     Repeated  acute  attacks 
lead  to  the  chronic  form,  and  make  the  patient  a  life-long  sufferer. 


PRACTICAL      QUESTIONS. 

1.  Describe  the  motions  of  the  bones  when  we  are  using  a  gimlet. 

2.  Why  do  we  tire  when  we  stand  erect  ? 

3.  Why  does  it  rest  us  to  change  our  work  ? 

4.  Why  and  when  is  dancing  a  beneficial  exercise  ? 

5.  Why  do  we  lean  forward  when  we  wish  to  rise  from  a  chair  ? 

6.  Why  does  the  projection  of  the  heel-bone  make  walking  easier  ? 

7.  Does  a  horse  travel  with  less  fatigue  over  a  flat  than  a  hilly  country? 

8.  Can  you  move  your  upper  jaw? 

9.  Are  people  naturally  right  or  left  handed  ? 

10.  Why  can  so  few  persons  move  their  ears  by  the  muscles  ? 

11.  Is  the  blacksmith's  right  arm  healthier  than  the  left  ? 


34  THE   MUSCLES. 

12.  Boys  often,  though  foolishly,  thrust  a  pin  into  the  flesh  just  above 
the  knee.     Why  is  it  not  painful  ? 

13.  Will    ten-minutes  practice    in  a  gymnasium  answer    for  a  day's 
exercise  ? 

14.  Why  would  an  elastic  tendon  be  unfitted  to  transmit  the  motion  of 
a  muscle  ? 

15.  When  one  is  struck  violently  on  the  head,  why  does  he  instantly 
fall? 

16.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  difference  between  light  and  dark  meat  in 
a  fowl  ? 


BLA.CK  BO  AR,  L>      ANALYSIS. 


f  1.  The  use  of  the  muscles. 
I  2.  Contractility  of  the  muscles. 

13.  Arrangement  of  the  muscles. 
4.  The  two  kinds  of  muscles. 
5.  The  structure  of  the  muscles. 
MUSCLES.  I  6.  The  tendons  for  fastening  muscles. 

7.  The  effect  of  big  joints. 

8.  Action  of  the  muscles  in  standing. 

9.  Action  of  the  muscles  in  walking. 

2.  THE  MUSCULAR  SENSE. 

1.  Necessity  of  Exercise. 

2.  Violent  Exercise 

3.  HYGIENE     OF     THE  I  3  Time  for  Exercise. 

I  4.  Kinds  of  Exercise. 
5.  Law  of  Health. 

4.  WONDERS  OF  THE  MUSCLES. 


5.  DISEASES. 


1.  St.  Vitus's  Dance. 

2.  Locked-jaw. 

3.  Gout. 

4.  Rheumatism. 


THE    SKIN. 


rTlHE  Skin  is  a  tough,  thin,  close-fitting,  elastic 
-A-  garment  which  protects  the  tender  flesh.  It  is, 
also,  an  active  organ,  doing  its  part  to  keep  in  order 
the  house  in  which  we  live.  It  oils  itself  to  preserve 
its  smoothness  and  delicacy,  replaces  itself  as  fast 
as  it  wears  out,  and  is  at  once  the  perfection  of  use 
and  beauty. 

Cutis  and  Cuticle. — What  we  commonly  call  the 
skin — viz.,  the  part  raised  by  a  blister — is  only  the 
cuticle,  which  covers  the  cutis  or  true  skin.  The 


A  represents  a  vertical  section  of  the  cuticle;  B,  lateral  tie  w  of  the  cells  ;  C,Jlat 
side  of  scales  like  d,  magnified  250  diameters,  showing  the  nucleated  cells  transformed 
into  broad  scales. 

cutis  is  full  of  nerves  and  blood-vessels,  but  the 
cuticle  neither  bleeds  nor  causes  pain,  neither  suffers 
from  heat  nor  feels  the  cold. 


36  THE  SKIN. 

Experiment. — Run  a  needle  through  the  thick  cuticle  at  the  root  of 
your  finger-nail,  and  note  its  insensibility. 

The  cuticle  is  composed  of  small,  flat  cells  or 
scales.  These  are  constantly  shed  from  the  surface 
in  the  form  of  scurf,  dandruff,  etc.,  but  are  as  con- 
stantly renewed  from  the  cutis  below. 

Value  of  the  Cuticle. — In  the  palm  of  the  hand, 
the  sole  of  the  foot,  and  other  parts  especially  liable 
to  injury,  the  cuticle  is  very  thick.  This  is  an  ad- 
mirable provision  for  their  protection.  By  use,  it 
becomes  callous  and  horny.  The  boy  who  goes  out 
barefoot  for  the  first  time,  "treading  as  if  on  eggs," 
can  soon  run  where  he  pleases  among  thistles  and 
over  stones.  So  the  blacksmith  handles  hot  iron, 
and  the  mason  works  in  lime,  without  burning  or 
corroding  their  flesh. 

The  Complexion.  —  In  the  freshly-made  cells  on 
the  lower  side  of  the  cuticle,  is  a  pigment  composed 
of  tiny  grains.  In  its  varying  tint  lies  the  difference 
of  hue  between  the  blonde  and  the  brunette,  the 
European  and  the  African.  The  sun  has  a  powerful 
effect  upon  the  coloring-matter,  and  so  we  "  tan  "  on 
exposure  to  its  rays.  If  the  color  gathers  in  spots,  it 
forms  freckles. 

HAIR    AND    NAILS. 

The  Hair  and  the  Nails  are  modified  forms  of  the 
cuticle. 

The  Hair  protects  from  heat  and  cold,  and  shields 
the  head  from  blows. 


THE  HAIR. 


hair  marjmjied  600 
diameters.  S,  the  sac  (fol- 
P,   the    papula, 
the  cells  and  the 
blood-vessels  (V). 


Experiment.— Place  a  hair  on  the  slide  of 
a  microscope,  cover  it  with  a  thin  glass,  and  let  a 
few  drops  of  alcohol  flow  between  the  cover  and 
the  slide.  (This  causes  the  air,  which  tills  the 
hair  and  prevents  our  seeing  its  structure,  to 
escape. )  You  will  see  that  the  outside  of  the  hair 
is  hard  and  compact,  and  consists  of  a  layer  of 
colorless  scales,  which  overlie  one  another  like  the 
shingles  of  a  house.  The  interior  is  porous,  and 
probably  conveys  the  liquids  by  which  it  is  nour- 
ished. 

Each  hair  grows  from  a  tiny 
bulb  (papilla),  at  the  bottom  of  a 
little  hollow  in  the  skin,  being  pro- 
duced, like  the  cuticle,  by  the  con- 
stant formation  of  new  cells  at  its  base.  The  hair 
itself  is  insensible,  and  the  pain  felt  when  one  is 
pulled  out  comes  from  nerves  in  the  hollow  wherein 
it  is  rooted.  If  the  bulb  has  been  uninjured  in  the 
pulling,  it  will  produce  a  new  hair;  but,  the  bulb 
destroyed,  the  hair  will  never  grow  again.  Gray 
hair  cannot  be  restored  to  its  original  color.  Hair- 
dyes  and  so-called  " hair-restorers"  are  usually  in- 
jurious substances,  containing  lead  or  lunar  caustic. 

Wherever  hair  exists,  are  found  tiny  muscles, 
which  contract  when  exposed  to  cold,  pucker  up  the 
skin,  and  so  cause  the  hair  to  stand  on  end.  This 
muscular  tissue  is  still  more  fully  developed  in 
horses  and  other  animals,  which  we  see  shaking  the 
whole  skin,  in  order  to  drive  away  flies. 

The  Nails  protect  the  ends  of  the  tender  finger, 
and  toe,  and  give  us  more  power  to  grasp  and  pick 
up  objects.  By  their  aid,  we  perform  a  hundred 


THE  SKIN. 


little  mechanical  acts  which 
else  were  impossible.  Their 
delicate  color  and  beautiful 
outline  give  a  finish  of  orna- 
ment to  the  hand.  The  nail  is 
set  in  a  groove  in  the  cuticle, 

c  and  grows  at  the  root  in 
length,  and  from  beneath  in 

D  thickness. 

Experiment.  —  Make    a    little   mark 

T^ 

near  the  root  of  a  nail.  You  can  see,  week 
by  week,  how  the  process  of  growth  goes  on, 
and  form  some  idea  of  what  a  multitude 
of  cells  must  be  transformed  into  horny 
matter. 

THE     MUCOUS    MEMBRANE. 

Structure. — At  the  edges  of 
the  openings  into  the  body,  the 
skin  seems  to  stop,  giving  place 
to  a  ^dder,  more  sensitive 
tissue,  moistened  by  a  fluid 
(mucus).  Really,  however,  the 

skin  does  not  cease,  but  passes  into  a  more  delicate 
covering  of  the  same  general  composition,  viz.,  an 
outer,  hard,  bloodless,  insensible  layer,  and  an  inner, 
soft,  nervous  one. 

Connective  Tissue. — The  cutis  and  the  correspond- 
ing layer  of  the  mucous  membrane  consist  chiefly 
of  a  fibrous  substance,  called  connective  tissue  be- 
cause it  connects  all  the  differenl  parts  of  the  body. 
In  the  mucous  membrane  it  is  soft  and  tender,  but 


USES  OF  MEMBRANE.  39 

in  the  ligaments  and  tendons  it  is  strong  and  dense. 
It  yields  gelatine  on  boiling,  and  is  the  part  which 
tans  when  hides  are  manufactured  into  leather. 

Experiment. — Note  in  a  piece  of  veal  this  delicate  substance  between 
the  layers  of  muscle,  binding  together  their  numerous  fibers.  If  you  blow 
air  into  the  veal,  it  will  fill  the  tiny  cells  of  the  tissue  and  make  the  meat 
look  plump — a  trick  not  unknown,  it  is  said,  to  butchers. 

Uses  of  Membrane. — Our  bodies  are  wrapped  in 
membrane.  On  the  outside,  the  skin  protects  from 
exterior  injury,  and,  on  the  inside,  the  mucous 
membrane  reaches  from  the  lips  to  the  innermost 
air-cell  of  the  lungs.  Every  organ  is  enveloped. 
Every  bone  has  its  sheath.  Every  socket  is  lined. 
Even  the  separate  fibers  of  muscles  are  covered  with 
tissue.  The  brain  and  the  spinal  cord  are  triply 
wrapped,  while  the  eye  is  only  a  membranous  globe 
filled  with  fluid.  These  membranes  not  only  protect 
and  support  the  organs  they  enfold,  but  they  also 
perform  an  important  function.  "  They  are  the  fil- 
ters of  the  body."  Through  their  pores  pass  alike  the 
elements  of  growth,  and  the  returning  products  of 
waste.  Bathed  on  one  side  by  the  blood,  they  choose 
from  it  suitable  food  for  the  organ  they  envelop, 
and,  in  their  tiny,  mysterious  cells,  even  form  new 
products,  just  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  body. 

Fat  is  deposited  as  an  oil  in  the  cells  of  this  tissue, 
just  beneath  the  skin,  giving  plumpness  to  the  body, 
and  acting  as  a  non-conductor  to  retain  the  heat. 
It  collects  as  pads  in  the  hollows  of  the  bones,  around 
the  joints,  and  between  the  muscles,  causing  them 
to  glide  more  easily  upon  each  other.  As  marrow, 


40  THE  SKIN. 

it  nourishes  the  skeleton,  and  also  distributes  the 
shock  of  a  sudden  jar.  It  does  not,  however,  gather 
within  the  lungs,  or  the  eyelids,  where  it  would  clog 
the  organs. 

THE    TEETH. 

The  Teeth  are  thirty-two  in  all, — there  being  eight 
in  each  half -jaw,  similarly  shaped  and  arranged. 
In  each  set  of  eight,  the  two  nearest  the  middle  of 
the  jaw  have  wide,  sharp,  chisel-like  edges,  fit  for 
cutting,  and  hence  are  called  incisors.  The  next 
corresponds  to  the  great  tearing  or  holding  tooth 
of  the  dog,  and  is  styled  the  canine,  or  eye-tooth. 
The  next  two  have  broader  crowns,  with  two  points, 
or  cusps,  and  are  hence  termed  the  bicuspids.  The 
remaining  three  are  much  broader,  and,  as  they  are 
ue?,d  to  crush  the  food,  are  called  the  grinders,  or 
molars.  The  incisors  and  eye-teeth  have  one  fang, 
or  root,»the  others  have  two  or  three  each. 

The  Milk-teeth. — We  are  given  two  sets  of  teeth. 

Fig.  tl. 


The  teeth  a  the  age  of  six  and  one-half  years.  I,  the  incisors  ;  Q,the  canine  ;  M, 
the  molars :  the  last  molar  is  the  first  of  the  permanent  teeth  ;  F,  sacs  of  the  permanent 
incisors  ;  C,  of  the  canine  ;  B,  of  the  bicuspids  ;  N,  of  the  2d  molar ;  the  sac  of  the  3d 
molar  is  empty.— MARSHALL. 


Fig. 


41 


The  first,  ^r  iMlK-teeth,  are  small  and  only  twenty 
in  number.  Each  half -jaw  has  two  incisors,  one 
canine,  and  two  molars.  The  middle  incisors  are 
usually  cut  about  the  age  of  seven  months,  the 
others  at  nine  months,  the  first  molars  at  twelve 
months,  the  canines  at  eighteen  months,  and  the 
remaining  molars  at  two  or  three  years  of  age.  The 
lower  teeth  precede  the  corresponding  upper  ones. 
The  time  often  varies,  but  the  order  seldom. 

The  Permanent  Teeth. — At  six  years,  when  the 
first  set  is  usually  still  perfect,  the  jaws  contain  the 
crowns  of  all  the  second,  except  the  wisdom-teeth. 
About  this  age,  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  growing 
body,  the  crowns  of  the  perma- 
nent set  begin  to  press  against 
the  roots  of  the  milk-teeth,  which, 
becoming  absorbed,  leave  the 
loosened  teeth  to  drop  out,  while 
the  new  ones  rise  to  occupy  their 
places. 

The  central  incisors  appear  at 
about  seven  years  of  age  ;  the 
others  at  eight ;  the  first  bicus- 
pids at  nine,  the  second  at 
ten ;  the  canines  at  eleven 
or  twelve ;  the  second  molars 
at  twelve  or  thirteen,  and 
the  last,  or  wisdom  -  teeth, 
are  sometimes  delayed  until  the 
twenty-second  year  or  even  later. 

Structure  of  the    Teeth.— A  tooth  consists  of  (1) 
the  crown— protected  by  a  hard,  white  enamel;  (2) 


Vertical  Kecfiori  ofa  Molar 
™&SS?<$«$1 


c'  c 


42  THE  SKIN. 

dentine  —  a  dense,  bone-like  substance ;  and  (3),  at 
its  center,  a  soft,  reddish- white  pulp,  full  of  nerves 
and  blood-vessels.  The  fang  is  covered  by  a  thin 
layer  of  bone  (cement).  The  seat  of  toothache  is 
in  the  sensitive  pulp. 

The  Decay  of  the  Teeth  is  commonly  caused  by 
bits  of  food  which  get  between  them  and  decom- 
pose ;  and  (2)  by  the  saliva  which  deposits  a  sedi- 
ment called  tartar. 

Preservation  of  the  Teeth.  —  The  teeth  should  be 
brushed  at  least  every  morning  with  tepid  water, 
and  twice  a  week  with  soap  and  powdered  orris-root. 
After  each  meal,  every  particle  of  food  should  be 
removed  from  between  them,  using  a  quill  or  wooden 
tooth-pick.  The  enamel  once  injured,  it  is  never 
restored,  and  the  tooth  will  soon  decay.  We  should 
not,  therefore,  crack  nuts,  bite  thread,  or  use  metal 
tooth-picks,  gritty  tooth-powder,  or  any  acid  which 
"sets  the  teeth  on  edge,"  i.  e.,  that  acts  upon  the 
enamel.  It  is  well  to  have  the  teeth  examined 
yearly  by  a  dentist. 

THE     GLANDS     OF     THE     SKIN. 

I.  The  Oil  Glands  are  clusters  of  tiny  sacs  which 
secrete  an  oil  that  flows  to  the  root  of  the  hair, 
thence  oozing  out  on  the  cuticle  (Fig.  20).  This  is 
nature's  hair-dressing,  and  it  also  keeps  the  skin  soft 
and  flexible.  These  glands  are  of  considerable  size 
on  the  face,  especially  about  the  nose.  When  ob- 
structed, their  contents  become  hard  and  dark- 
colored,  and  are  vulgarly  called  "  worms." 


HINTS  ABOUT   WASHING  AND  BATHING.  43 

II.  The  Perspiratory  Glands  are  fine  tubes  about 
yj~o  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
in  length,  which  run  through  the  cutis,  and  then 
coil  up  in  little  balls  (Fig.  20).  In  the  palm  of  the 
hand,  there  are  about  2,800  in  a  single  square  inch. 
The  total  number  on  the  body  of  an  adult  is  esti- 
mated at  about  two  and  a  half  million.  If  they 
were  laid  end  to  end,  they  would  extend  nearly  ten 
miles. 

Experiment. — Examine  with  a  pocket  lens  the  fine  ridges  on  the 
palm  of  your  hand,  and  you  will  see  the  mouths  (pores)  of  these  glands. 

The  Perspiration.  —  From  these  openings,  there 
constantly  passes  a  vapor,  forming  what  we  call  the 
insensible  perspiration.  Under  exercise  or  heat  it 
flows  more  freely,  and  condenses  on  the  surface  in 
drops.  It  consists  of  about  ninety-nine  parts  water, 
and  one  part  solid  matter.  The  amount  thrown  off 
by  an  adult  is,  on  the  average,  about  two  pounds  per 
day.  This  constant  drainage  is  essential  to  life.  A 
small  animal,  as  the  rabbit,  if  coated  with  varnish, 
would  die  within  twelve  hours. 

HYGIENE. 

About  Washing  and  Bathing. — The  cast-off  cu- 
ticle, dried  perspiration,  and  dust  form  a  crust  upon 
the  skin,  stopping  the  pores,  checking  the  insensible 
perspiration,  and  retaining  in  the  body  the  waste 
matter  it  ought  to  throw  off.  Hence  arises  the  need 
of  frequent  bathing.  Nothing  is  so  good  for  improv- 
ing the  complexion,  preventing  colds,  keeping  up 
strength,  and  lengthening  life. 


44  REACTION. 

The  moment  of  rising  from  bed  is  the  proper  time 
for  the  full  wash  or  bath  with  which  one  should 
commence  the  day.  The  body  is  then  warm,  and 
can  endure  cool  water  better  than  at  any  other  time  ; 
it  is  relaxed,  and  needs  bracing ;  and  the  nerves, 
deadened  by  sleep,  require  a  gentle  stimulus.  If  the 
system  be  strong  enough  to  resist  the  shock,  cold 
water  is  the  best ;  if  not,  use  tepid. 

After  the  bath,  the  whole  body  should  be  thoroughly 
rubbed  with  a  coarse  towel  or  flesh-brush.  At  first, 
the  friction  may  be  unpleasant,  but  this  sensitive- 
ness will  soon  pass  away,  and  the  keenest  pleasure 
be  felt  in  the  lively  glow  which  follows.  A  bath 
should  not  be  taken  just  before  nor  immediately  after 
a  meal,  lest  it  check  digestion. 

Reaction. — After  taking  a  cold  bath,  there  should 
be  a  prompt  reaction.  When  the  surface  is  chilled 
by  cold  water,  the  blood  sets  to  the  heart,  exciting  it 
to  more  vigorous  action  ;  then,  being  thrown  back  to 
the  surface,  it  reddens,  warms,  and  stimulates  the 
skin.  This  is  called  the  reaction,  and  in  it  lies  the 
chief  virtue  of  a  cold  bath.  In  a  hot  bath,  on  the 
contrary,  the  blood  is  drawn  to  the  surface,  less  blood 
goes  to  the  heart,  the  circulation  decreases,  and 
languor  ensues.  It  should  be  followed  by  a  dash  of 
cold  water. 

If,  after  a  cold  bath,  we  are  chilly  instead  of  warm, 
it  proves  either  that  proper  means  were  not  taken  to 
bring  on  reaction,  or  that  the  circulation  is  not 
vigorous  enough  to  warrant  such  a  bath.  In  general, 
the  effect  of  a  cool  bath  is  to  exhilarate  ;  of  a  warm 
one,  to  depress.  Hence  the  latter  should  not  ordi- 


CLOTHING.  45 

narily  be  taken  oftener  than  once  a  week,  while  the 
former  may  be  enjoyed  daily. 

Sea-Bathing  is  exceedingly  stimulating,  on  account 
of  the  action  of  the  salt  and  the  exciting  sur- 
roundings. Twenty  minutes  is  the  utmost  limit  for 
bathing  or  swimming  either  in  salt  or  fresh  water. 
A  chilly  sensation  should  be  the  signal  for  instant 
removal.  Gentle  exercise  after  a  bath  is  beneficial. 

Clothing  in  winter,  to  keep  us  warm,  should  repel 
the  external  cold  and  retain  the  heat  of  the  body. 
In  summer,  to  keep  us  cool,  it  should  not  absorb  the 
rays  of  the  sun,  and  should  permit  the  passage  of 
the  heat  of  the  body.  At  all  seasons,  it  should  be 
porous,  to  give  ready  escape  to  the  perspiration,  and 
a  free  admission  of  air  to  the  skin.  We  can  readily 
apply  these  essential  conditions  to  the  different  kinds 
of  clothing. 

Linen  is  soft  to  the  touch,  and  is  a  good  conductor 
of  heat.  Hence  it  is  pleasant  for  summer  wear,  but, 
being  apt  to  chill  the  surface  too  rapidly,  it  should 
not  be  worn  next  the  skin. 

Cotton  is  a  poorer  conductor  of  heat  and  absorber 
of  moisture,  and  is  therefore  warmer  than  linen.  It 
is  sufficiently  cool  for  summer  wear,  and  affords  bet- 
ter protection  against  sudden  changes. 

Woolen  absorbs  moisture  slowly,  and  contains 
much  air  in  its  pores.  It  is  therefore  a  poor  conduc- 
tor of  heat,  and  guards  the  wearer  against  changes  in 
weather.  Hence,  flannel  or  merino  should  be  worn 
next  the  skin  at  all  times,  except  in  the  heat  of  sum- 
mer, when  cotton  flannel  or  gauze  may  be  substi- 
tuted. 


46  INGROWING-NAILS. 

Light-colored  clothing  is  cooler  in  summer,  and 
warmer  in  winter.  As  the  warmth  of  clothing  de- 
pends greatly  on  the  amount  of  air  contained  in  its 
fibers,  fine,  porous  cloth  with  a  plenty  of  nap  is  best 
for  winter  wear.  Furs  are  the  perfection  of  winter 
clothing,  since  they  combine  warmth  with  lightness. 

All  the  body  except  the  head  should  be  equally 
protected  by  clothing.  No  part  covered  to-day  can 
be  uncovered  to-night  or  to-morrow,  except  at  the 
peril  of  health.  It  is  a  cruel  fashion  that  leaves  the 
limbs  of  a  little  child  unprotected.  Nor  are  children 
made  more  hardy  by  going  thinly  clad.  The  system 
is  made  vigorous  by  exercise  and  food ;  not  by  ex- 
posure. Above  all,  the  feet  need  heavy  shoes  with 
thick  soles,  and  rubbers  when  it  is  damp.  At  night, 
and  after  exercise,  we  require  extra  clothing. 

Diseases. — 1.  CORNS  are  a  thickening  of  the  cuticle,  caused  by  pres- 
sure or  friction.  They  most  frequently  occur  on  the  feet ;  but  are  pro- 
duced on  the  shoemaker's  knee  by  constant  hammering,  and  on  the 
soldier's  shoulder  by  the  rubbing  of  his  musket.  This  hard  portion  irri- 
tates the  sensitive  cutis  beneath,  and  so  causes  pain.  By  soaking  the  feet 
in  hot  water,  the  corn  will  be  softened,  when  it  may  be  paired  with  a  sharp 
knife. 

2.  IN-GROWING  NAILS  are  caused  by  pressure,  which  forces  the  edge  of 
the  toe-nail  into  the  flesh.     To  cure  them,  carefully  cut  away  the  mal- 
grown  part,  and  then  make  a  wedge-shaped  incision  in  the  top  of  the  nail. 
The  two  portions,  uniting,  will  draw  away  the  nail  from  the  flesh  at  the 
edge.     To  prevent  them,  wear  broad  shoes. 

3.  WARTS  are  overgrown  papillse  (Fig.  19).      They  may  generally  be 
removed  by  applying  glacial  acetic  acid,  or  a  drop  of  nitric  acid,  repeated 
until  the  entire  wart  is  softened.    Care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  acid  from 
touching  the  neighboring  skin.      The   capricious  character  of  warts  has 
given  rise  to  the  popular  delusion  concerning  the  influence  of  charms  upcn 
them. 


PRACTICAL  QUESTIONS.  47 

4.  CHILBLAIN  is  a  local  inflammation  affecting  generally  the  feet. 
Liability  to  it  usually  passes  away  with  manhood.  It  is  not  caused  by 
"freezing  the  feet,"  as  many  suppose,  though  attacks  are  brought  on,  or 
aggravated,  by  exposure  to  cold  and  by  sudden  warming.  It  is  subject  to 
daily  congestion  (see  Congestion),  manifested  by  soreness,  itching,  etc., 
commonly  occurring  at  night.  The  best  preventive  is  a  uniform  tempera- 
ture, and  careful  protection  against  the  cold  by  warm,  loose,  and  plentiful 
clothing,  especially  for  the  feet. 


PRACTICAL     QUESTIONS. 

1.  If  a  hair  be  plucked  out,  will  it  grow  again  ? 

2.  What  causes  the  hair  to  "stand  on  end  "  when  we  are  frightened  ? 

3.  Why  is  the  skin  roughened  by  riding  in  the  cold  ? 

4.  Why  is  the  back  of  a  washer- woman's  hand  less  water-soaked  than 
the  palm  ? 

5.  What  would  be  the  length  of  the  perspiratory  tubes  in  a  single  square 
inch  of  the  palm,  if  placed  end  to  end  ? 

6.  What  colored  clothing  is  best  adapted  to  all  seasons  ? 

7.  What  is  the  effect  of  paint  and  powder  on  the  skin  ? 

8.  Is  water- proof  clothing  healthful  for  constant  wear  ? 

9.  Why  are  rubbers  cold  to  the  feet  ? 

10.  Why  does  the  heat  seem  oppressive  when  the  air  is  moist  ? 

11.  Why  is  friction  of  the  skin  invigorating  after  a  cold  bath  ? 

12.  Why  does  the  hair  of  domestic  animals  become  roughened  in  winter  ? 

13.  Why  do  fowls  shake  out  their  feathers  erect  before  they  perch  for  the 
night  ? 

14.  WThy  do  we  perspire  so  profusely  after  drinking  cold  water? 

15.  What  are  the  best  means   of  preventing  skin-diseases,   colds,   and 
rheumatism  ? 

16.  What  causes  the  difference  between  the  hard  hand  of  a  blacksmith 
and  the  soft  hand  of  a  woman  ? 

17.  Why  should  a  painter  avoid  getting  paint  on  the  palm  of  his  hand  ? 

18.  Why  should  we  not  use  the  soap  or  the  soiled  towel  at  a  hotel  ? 

19.  Which  teeth  cut  like  a  pair  of  scissors  ? 

20.  Which  teeth  cut  like  a  chisel  ? 


48 


THE  SKIN. 


21.  Which  should  be  clothed  the  warmer,  a  merchant  or  a  farmer  ? 

22.  Why  should  we  not  crack  nuts  with  our  teeth  ? 

23.  Do  the  edges  of  the  upper  and  the  lower  teeth  meet  ? 

24.  When  fatigued,  would  you  take  a  cold  bath  ? 

25.  Why  is  the  outer  surface  of  a  kid  glove  finer  than  the  inner  ? 

26.  Why  will  a  brunette  endure  the  sun's  rays  better  than  a  blonde  ? 

27.  Does  patent-leather  form  a  healthful  covering  for  the  feet  ? 


BLACKBOARD      ANALYSIS. 


1.  The  Hair  

2. 

THE   HAIR   AND    THE 
NAILS. 

2.  The  Nails  

3. 

THE    Mucous    MEM-  . 

BRANE. 

'  1.  The  Structure. 
2.  Connective  Tissue. 
3.  Uses  of  Membrane. 
L  4.  Fat. 

THE    STRUCTURE 
THE  SKIN. 


4.  THE  TEETH 


5.  THE  GLANDS 


1.  TheCutis;  its  composition  and  character. 

2.  The  Cuticle  ;  its  composition  and  character. 

3.  The  value  of  the  Cuticle. 

4.  The  Complexion. 


f  a.  Description 
|  h.  Method  of  Growth. 
\  c,  Hair-dyes,  and  Cos- 
metics. 

[  d.  Muscular  tissue, 
j  a.  Uses. 
(  b.  Method  of  growth. 


1.  Number  and  kinds  of  Teeth. 

9     The.  twr,  cftc  j  *•    Tne  Milk  Teeth. 

2.  The  tw  o  sets -j  2   The  permanent  Teeth 

3.  Structure  of  the  Tieih. 

4.  The  Decay  of  the  Teeth. 

5.  The  Preservation  of  the  Teeth. 


1.  The  two  kinds 

2   The  Perspiration. 


J  1.  Oil  Glands. 

I  2.  Perspiratory  Glands, 


f  1.  About  Washing  and  Bathing. 
2.  The  Reaction. 


C.  HYGIENE. 


3.  Sea-Bathing. 


4.  Clothing. 


a.  General  Principles. 

b.  Linen. 

c.  Cotton 

d.  Woolen. 

e.  Flannel. 

f.  Color  of  Clothing. 

g.  Structure  of  doming 
.h.  .Insufficient  Clothing. 


1.  Corns. 

2.  In -growing  Nails, 

3.  Warts. 

4.  Chilblains. 


RESPIRATION 

AND 

THE    VOICE. 


THE  ORGANS  of  Bespiration  and  the  Voice  are  the 
larynx,  the  trachea,  and  the  lungs. 

Description  of  the  Organs  of  the  Voice.— 1.  THE 
LARYNX. — In  the  neck,  is  a  lump  sometimes  called 
Adam's  apple.  It  is  the  front  of  the  larynx.  This  is 
a  small,  gristly  box,  placed  at  the  top  of  the  wind- 
pipe, just  below  the  tongue.  The  opening  into  it 
from  the  throat  is  called  the  glottis  ;  and  the  cover, 
the  epiglottis.  The  latter  is  a  spoon-shaped  lid, 
which  opens  when  we  breathe,  but  shuts  when  we 
swallow,  and  so  lets  our  food  slip  over  it  into  the 
tube  (oesophagus,  e-sof ' -a-gus]  leading  to  the  stom- 
ach (Fig.  23). 

If  we  laugh  or  talk  when  we  swallow,  our  food  is 
apt  to  "go  the  wrong  way,"  i.  e.,  little  particles 
pass  into  the  larynx,  and  the  tickling  sensation  they 
produce  forces  us  to  cough,  to  expel  the  intruders. 

2.  THE  VOCAL  CORDS.— On  each  side  of  the  glottis 
are  the  so-called  vocal  cords.  They  are  not  really 
cords,  but  elastic  membranes  projecting  from  the 
3 


50  RESPIRATION  AND   THE  VOICE. 

Fig.  23. 


Passage  to  the  (Esophagus  and  Windpipe  ;  c,  the  tongue  ;  d,  the  soft  palate,  ending 
in  g,  the  uvula  ;  h,  the  epiglottis ;  i,  the  glottis ;  I,  the  oesophagus ;  f,  the  pharynx. 

sides  of  the  box  across  the  open- 
ing. When  not  in  use,  they 
spread  apart  and  leave  a  V- 
shaped  orifice  (Fig.  24),  through 
which  the  air  passes  to  and  from 
the  lungs.  If  the  cords  are 
tightened,  the  edges  approach 
each  other,  and,  being  thrown 
into  vibration,  cause  correspond- 
ing vibrations  in  the  current  of 
s  produced  in 


DIFFERENT  TONES  OF  THE  VOICE.  £1 

the  same  manner  as  by  the  vibrations  of  the  strings 
of  a  violin,  only  in  this  case  the  strings  are  scarcely 
an  inch  long. 

Experiment. — Ask  your  butcher  for  a  sheep's  larynx;  trim  off  the 
flesh,  and  dry  the  cartilages.  You  can  then  examine  at  leisure  the  struc- 
ture of  the  cords. 

Different  Tones  of  the  Voice. — The  higher  tones 
of  the  voice  are  produced  when  the  cords  are  short, 


The  Lungs,  showing  the  Larynx.    A,  the  windpipe  ;  H,  the  bronchial  tubes. 

tight,  and  closely  in  contact ;  the  lower  in  the  oppo- 
site way.     When  boys  are  about  fourteen  years  of 


62  RESPIRATION  AND  THE  VOICE. 

age,  the  larynx  enlarges,  and  the  cords  grow  propor- 
tionately longer  and  coarser;  hence,  the  voice  be- 
comes deeper,  or,  as  we  say,  "changes." 

Formation  of  Vocal  Sounds. — A  vocal  sound  re- 
quires the  action  of  the  larynx.  Speech  is  voice 
modified  by  the  lips,  tongue,  palate,  and  teeth. 

Experiments. — Open  your  mouth  and  make  the  pure  vowel  sounds 
a,  e,  i,  etc. ,  noting  how  the  form  of  the  aperture  is  changed  for  each  vowel 
by  the  tongue  and  the  lips.  Then  try  the  consonants.  You  will  discover 
that  m  and  n  can  be  made  only  by  blocking  the  air  in  the  mouth  and  send- 
ing it  through  the  nose  ;  I  lets  the  air  escape  at  the  sides  of  the  tongue  ;  r 
needs  a  vibratory  movement  of  the  tongue  ;  b  and  p  stop  the  breath  at  the 
lips,  and  d  and  t,  at  the  back  of  the  palate.  Now  place  your  hand  on  your 
throat,  and  note  the  absence  of  vibrations  when  you  whisper,  and  their 
presence  when  you  speak  aloud.  Continuing  your  experiments,  you  will 
find  that  a  sigh  is  only  a  vocalized  groan  ;  that  a  laugh  is  a  convulsive 
repeating  of  the  vowels  a,  e,  or  o  ;  and  that  a  whistle  is  not  a  vocal  but  a 
pure  mouth  sound. 


Fig.  3 


Bronchial  Tubes,  with  clusters  of  cells. 


Consonants  made  by  the 
lips  are  termed  labials; 
those  by  pressing  the 
tongue  against  the  teeth, 
dentals ;  those  by  the 
tongue,  linguals.  A  child 
first  learns  to  pronounce  the 
vowel  a,  then  the  conso- 
nants 6,  m,  and  p,  and 
afterward  their  unions— ba, 
ma,  pa. 

Description  of  the  Organs 
of  Respiration.  —  Beneath 
the  larynx  is  the  windpipe, 


HOW   WE  BREATHE.  6 

or  trachea  (Fig.  25).  It  is  strengthened  by  C- shaped 
cartilages  with  the  openings  behind,  where  they  are 
attached  to  the  oesophagus.  At  the  lower  end,  the 
trachea  divides  into  two  branches,  called  the  right 
and  left  bronchi.  These  subdivide  in  the  small  bron- 
chial tubes,  which  ramify  through  the  lungs  like  the 
branches  of  a  tree,  the  tiny  twigs  of  which  at  last 
end  in  clusters  of  cells  so  small  that  there  are 
000,000,000  in  all.  Along  the  air-passages  are  tiny 
thread-like  projections  (cilia).  These  are  constantly 
waving  to  and  fro,  and  serve  as  a  screen  to  catch  the 
dust  swept  in  with  the  breath. 

Experiment. — Procure  the  lungs  (vulgarly  called  "lights  ")  of  some 
slaughtered  animal.  Insert  a  quill  in  the  windpipe,  and  inflate  them. 
Notice  how  soft  and  sponge-like  is  the  structure.  See  how  they  will  float 
on  water.  Then  squeeze  a  bit  between  your  fingers  and  note  the  creaking 
sound. 

Wrappings  of  the  Lungs. — The  lungs  are  wrapped 
in  a  double  membrane  (the  pleura)  one  layer  being 
attached  to  the  lungs  and  the  other  to  the  walls  of 
the  chest.  This  secretes  a  lubricating  fluid,  making 
the  layers  glide  upon  each  other  with  ease. 

How  we  Breathe.— Respiration  consists  of  two 
acts — taking  in  the  air,  or  inspiration,  and  expelling 
the  air,  or  expiration. 

1.  INSPIRATION.—  When  we  draw  in  a  full  breath, 
we  straighten  the  spine  and  throw  the  head  and 
shoulders  back,  so  as  to  give  the  greatest  advantage 
to  the  muscles.  At  the  same  time,  the  diaphragm 
—the  muscular  partition  between  the  chest  and  the 
abdomen  (C,  Fig.  27) — descends  and  presses  the  walls 


RESPIRATION  AND  THE  VOICE. 


Fig.  27. 


A,  the  heart ;  B,  the  lungs  drawn  aside  to  show  the  internal  organs  ;  C,  the  dia~ 
phragm ;  D,  the  liver  ;  E,  the  gall  cyst ;  F,  the  stomach  ,•  G,  the  small  intestine  ;  H, 
the  transverse  colon. 

of  the  abdomen  outward.  Both  these  processes 
increase  the  size  of  the  chest.  Thereupon,  the  elas- 
tic lungs  expand  "to  occupy  the  extra  space,  while 
the  air,  rushing  in  through  the  windpipe,  pours 
along  the  bronchial  tubes,  and  crowds  into  every 
cell. 

2.  EXPIRATION. — When  we  forcibly  expel  the  air 
from  our  lungs,  the  operation  is  reversed.  We  bend 
forward,  draw  in  the  walls  of  the  abdomen,  and 
press  the  diaphragm  upward,  while  the  ribs  are 


THE  NEED  OF  AIR.  55 

pulled  downward, — all  together  diminishing  the  size 
of  the  chest,  and  forcing  the  air  outward. 

Ordinary,  quiet  breathing  is  performed  mainly  by 
the  diaphragm, — one  breath  to  every  four  beats  of 
the  heart,  or  eighteen  per  minute. 

Modifications  of  the  Breath. — Coughing  is  a  vio- 
lent expiration  in  which  the^  air  is  driven  through 
the  mouth.  Sneezing  differs  from  coughing,  the  air 
being  forced  through  the  nose.  Snoring  occurs 
when  the  air  passes  through  both  nose  and  mouth, 
while  the  palate  flaps  in  the  divided  air-current,  and 
so  throws  it  into  vibration.  Laughing  and  crying 
are  very  much  alike.  The  expression  of  the  face  is 
necessary  to  distinguish  between  them.  The  sounds 
are  produced  by  short,  rapid  contractions  of  the 
diaphragm.  Hiccough  is  confined  to  inspiration. 
It  is  caused  by  a  contraction  of  the  diaphragm  and 
a  sudden  closing  of  the  glottis  ;  the  entering  current 
of  air  strikes  the  closed  glottis  and  gives  rise  to  the 
well-known  sound. 

The  Capacity  of  the  Lungs. — If  we  take  a  deep 
inspiration,  and  then  forcibly  exhale  all  the  air  we 
can  expel  from  the  lungs,  this  amount,  termed  the 
breathing  capacity,  will  be,  for  a  man  of  average 
height,  about  230  cubic  inches,  or  one  gallon.  In 
addition,  it  is  found  that  the  lungs  contain  about  100 
cubic  inches  which  cannot  be  expelled,  thus  making 
their  entire  contents  about  330  cubic  inches,  or 
eleven  pints.  In  ordinary  breathing,  only  about 
twenty  or  thirty  cubic  inches  (less  than  a  pint)  of  air 
pass  in  and  out. 
The  Need  of  Air— The  body  needs  food,  clothing, 


56  &ESPIKATION  AND  THE  VOICE. 

sunshine,  bathing,  and  drink ;  but  above  all  these 
is  the  need  for  air.  The  other  wants  may  be  met 
by  occasional  supplies,  but  air  must  be  furnished 
every  moment  or  we  die. 

Air  consists  of  one-fifth  oxygen,  and  four-fifths 
nitrogen.  The  active  and  vital  element  is  oxygen. 
Taken  alone,  this  would  be  too  stimulating,  but  the 
passive  nitrogen  restrains  it.  No  tonic  is  so  refresh- 
ing as  a  few  full,  deep  breaths  of  cold  pure  air, 
which  sets  every  organ  aglow  with  the  energy  of 
the  fiery  oxygen  gas. 

Action  of  the  Air  in  the  Lungs.  — In  the  delicate 
cells  of  the  lungs,  the  air  gives  up  its  oxygen  to  the 
blood,  and  receives  in  turn  carbonic-acid  gas  and 
water,  foul  with  waste  matter  which  the  blood  has 
picked  up  in  its  circulation  through  the  body.  The 
blood,  thus  purified  and  laden  with  the  inspiring 
oxygen,  goes  bounding  through  the  system,  while 
the  air  we  exhale  carries  off  the  impurities.  In  this 
process,  the  blood  changes  from  purple  to  red. 

Experiments.— 1.  Breathe  into  a  jar,  and  lower  into  it  a  lighted 
candle.  The  flame  will  be  instantly  extinguished,  thus  indicating  the 
presence  of  carbonic-acid  gas.  2.  Breathe  upon  a  mirror,  and  a  film  of 
moisture  will  show  the  vapor.  3.  Confine  a  breath  in  a  bottle.  The  ani- 
mal matter  will  soon  decompose  and  give  off  an  offensive  odor. 

Analysis  of  the  Expired  Air  shows  that  it  has  lost 
about  one-fourth  of  its  oxygen,  and  gained  an  equal 
amount  of  carbonic-acid  gas,  besides  moisture,  and 
organic  impurities.  Our  breath,  then,  is  air  robbed 
of  its  vitality,  and  containing  in  its  place  a  gas  as 
fatal  to  life  as  it  is  to  a  flame,  and  effete  matter 


CONCERNING  THE  NEED  OF  VENTILATION.  5? 

which  is  disagreeable  to  the  smell,  injurious  to  the 
health,  and  may  contain  the  germs  of  disease. 

The  Evil  Effect  of  Rebreathing  the  air  cannot  be 
over-estimated.  We  take  back  into  our  bodies  that 
which  has  just  been  rejected,  and  the  blood  leaves 
the  lungs,  bearing,  not  invigorating  oxygen,  but 
refuse  matter  to  obstruct  the  whole  system.  We 
soon  feel  the  effect.  The  muscles  become  inactive  ; 
the  blood  stagnates ;  the  heart  acts  slowly ;.  the 
food  is  undigested ;  the  brain  is  clogged ;  and  the 
head  aches. 

The  constant  breathing  of  even  the  slightly-impure 
air  of  our  houses  tends  to  undermine  health.  The 
unpurified  blood  is  ready  to  receive  the  seeds  of  dis- 
ease. The  system,  deprived  of  the  inspiring  oxygen, 
is  sensitive  to  cold.  Pale  cheeks,  lusterless  eyes, 
languid  steps,  speak  but  too  plainly  of  oxygen  star- 
vation. In  such  a  soil,  catarrh,  scrofula,  and  con- 
sumption run  riot. 

oncerning  the  Need  of  Ventilation. — The  impuri- 
ties which  pass  off  from  the  lungs  and  through  the 
pores  of  the  skin  do  not  fall  to  the  floor,  but  diffuse 
themselves  through  the  surrounding  atmosphere.  A 
single  bad  breath  will  taint  the  air  of  a  whole  room. 
A  light  will  vitiate  as  much  air  as  a  dozen  persons. 
Many  breaths  and  lights,  therefore,  rapidly  unfit  the 
air  for  our  use. 

The  perfection  of  ventilation  is  reached  when  the 
air  of  a  room  is  as  pure  as  that  out  of  doors.  To 
accomplish  this  result,  we  must  allow  for  each  person 
600  cubic  feet  of  space,  besides  providing  thorough 
ventilation. 


58  RESPIRATION  AND  THE  VOICE. 

In  spite  of  these  well-known  facts,  scarcely  any 
pains  are  taken  to  supply  fresh  air,  while  the  doors 
and  windows  where  the  life-giving  oxygen  might 
creep  in  are  carefully  stopped. 

THE  SICK  ROOM  is  often  kept  carefully  closed.  Yet 
here  the  danger  of  bad  air  is  intensified.  The  expired 
breath  of  the  patient  is  dangerous  to  himself  as 
well  as  to  others.  Nature  is  seeking  to  throw  off 
the  poison  of  the  disease.  The  scavengers  of  the 
body  are  all  at  work,  and  the  breath  and  the  insen- 
sible perspiration  are  loaded  with  impurities. 

Experiment.  — When  the  sun  is  shining  through  a  crack  in  the  blinds 
of  a  darkened  room,  watch  the  line  of  floating  dust.  This  shows  how 
poisonous  germs  are  frequently  conveyed  to  our  lungs.  When  a  scarlet- 
fever  patient  is  uncovered,  a  cloud  of  such  fine  dust  will  rise  from  his 
body,  and  will  keep  its  contagious  properties  for  days. 

OUR  SITTING-ROOMS,  heated  by  furnaces  or  red-hot 
stoves,  frequently  have  no  means  of  ventilation,  or, 
if  provided,  they  are  seldom  used.  A  window  is 
occasionally  dropped  to  give  a  little  relief,  as  if  pure 
air  were  a  rarity,  and  must  be  doled  out  to  the  suffer- 
ing lungs  in  morsels,  instead  of  full  and  constant 
draughts.  The  inmates  are  starved  by  scanty  lung- 
food,  and  stupefied  by  foul  air.  The  process  goes  on 
year  by  year.  The  weakened  and  poisoned  body  at 
last  yields  to  disease.  Death  is  often  simply  the  pen- 
alty for  violating  nature's  laws.  Bad  air  begets  dis- 
ease ;  disease  begets  death. 

IN  OUR  CHURCHES,  the  foul  air  left  by  the  congrega- 
tion on  Sunday  is  shut  up  during  the  week,  and 
heated  for  the  next  Lord's  day,  when  the  people 
assemble  to  re-breathe  the  polluted  atmosphere. 


VENTILATION.  59 

They  are  thus  forced,  with  every  breath  they  take, 
to  violate  the  physical  laws  of  Him  whom  they  meet 
to  worship, — laws  written  not  3000  years  ago  upon 
Mount  Sinai  on  tables  of  stone,  but  to-day  engraved 
in  the  constitution  of  their  own  living,  breathing 
bodies.  On  brains  benumbed  and  starving  for  oxy- 
gen, the  purest  truth  and  the  highest  eloquence  fall 
with  little  force. 

BED-ROOM  VENTILATION. — We  sleep  in  a  small  bed- 
room from  which  every  breath  of  fresh  air  is  ex- 
cluded, because  we  fancy  that  all  night-air  is  un- 
healthy, and  so  we  breathe  its  dozen  hogsheads  of 
air  over  and  over  again,  and  then  wonder  why  we 
awaken  in  the  morning  so  dull  and  unrefreshed ! 
Return  to  our  room  after  inhaling  the  fresh,  morning 
air,  and  the  fetid  odor  we  meet  on  opening  the  door, 
is  convincing  proof  how  we  have  poisoned  our  lungs 
during  the  night.  There  is  a  singular  prejudice 
against  the  night-air.  Yet,  as  Florence  Nightingale 
aptly  says,  what  other  air  can  we  breathe  at  night  ? 
In  large  cities,  night-air  is  often  more  wholesome 
than  that  of  the  day-time. 

Every  room  needs  2000  feet  of  fresh  air  per  houl 
for  every  person  it  contains.  Our  ingenuity  ought 
to  find  some  way  of  supplying  this  want.  A  part  of 
the  care  we  devote  to  delicate  articles  of  food,  drink, 
and  dress  would  abundantly  meet  this  prime  neces- 
sity of  our  bodies. 

Open  the  windows  both  at  the  top  and  the  bottom. 
You  need  never  fear  the  fresh  night-air,  except,  per- 
haps,  in  extreme  damp  weather,  or  in  places  where 
malaria  is  known  to  exist.  Put  on  plenty  of  clothing 


60  RESPIRATION  AND  THE  VOICE. 

to  keep  warm  by  day  and  by  night,  and  then  let  the 
inspiring  oxygen  come  in  as  freely  as  God  has  given 
it.  Pure  air  is  the  cheapest  necessity  and  luxury  of 
life.  Let  it  not  be  the  rarest ! 

SCHOOL-ROOM  VENTILATION. — Who, 'ongoing  from 
the  open  air  of  a  clear,  bracing  winter's  day,  into  a 
crowded  school-room,  late  in  the  session,  has  not 
noticed  the  disagreeable  odor,  and  been  for  a  mo- 
ment nauseated  and  half-stifled  by  the  oppressive 
atmosphere  ?  It  is  not  strange.  See  how  many 
causes  here  combine  to  pollute  the  air.  If  the  room 
is  heated  by  a  stove,  quantities  of  carbonic-acid  gas, 
driven  by  downward  drafts  in  the  flue,  escape 
through  seams,  and  cracks,  and  the  occasionally- 
opened  door  of  the  stove.  In  the  case  of  a  furnace, 
the  same  effect  is  too  often  experienced,  and  the 
odor  of  coal-gas  is  a  common  one,  especially  when 
the  fire  is  replenished.  The  insensible  perspiration 
is  more  active  in  children  than  in  adults ;  they, 
moreover,  rush  in  with  their  clothing  saturated  with 
the  perspiration  induced  by  their  sports ;  so  that, 
on  the  average,  each  pupil,  during  school  hours, 
loads  the  air  with  about  half -a-pint  of  aqueous  vapor. 
Some  of  the  children  come  from  homes  that  are 
close,  ill-ventilated,  and  uncleanly  ;  some  from  sick- 
rooms, whence  they  bring  in  their  clothing  the 
germs  of  disease ;  and  some  may  themselves  bear 
traces  of  illness,  or  have  unsound  organs,  and  so 
their  breath  and  exhalations  be  poisonous. 

In  addition,  the  air  is  filled  with  dust  brought  in 
and  kept  astir  by  many  busy  feet ;  by  ashes  from 
the  stove  or  furnace ;  and  especially  by  chalk-dust. 


VENTILATION.  61 

The  modern  method  of  teaching  requires  a  large 
amount  of  black-board  work,  and  the  air  of  the 
school-room  is  thus  loaded  with  chalk-particles. 
These  collect  in  the  nasal  passages  and  the  upper 
part  of  the  larynx,  and  irritate  the  membrane,  per- 
haps laying  the  foundation  of  catarrh. 

The  usual  school-room  atmosphere  bears  the  natu- 
ral fruit  of  frequent  headaches,  inattention,  weari- 
ness, and  stupor.  Instead  of  six  hundred  feet  of 
space  being  allowed  for  each  pupil,  as  perfect  ven- 
tilation demands— the  lowest  estimate  being  250  feet 
— often  not  over  one  hundred  feet  are  afforded.  In- 
stead of  2000  cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  for  each  pupil 
being  supplied  and  as  much  foul  air  removed  every 
hour,— the  amount  needed  for  perfect  health — per- 
haps no  means  of  ventilation  at  all  are  provided,  and 
an  occasionally  opened  door,  and  the  benevolent 
cracks  and  chinks  in  the  building,  furnish  the  sole 
relief  for  the  suffering  lungs. 

How  Shall  We  Ventilate  ?— The  usual  method  of 
ventilation  depends  upon  the  fact  that  hot  air,  being 
lighter  than  cold  air,  tends  to  rise,  and  the  cold  air 
sinks  to  take  its  place. 

Experiments. — 1.  Open  the  door  of  a  heated  room,  and  hold  a  lighted 
candle  first  at  the  top,  and  then  at  the  bottom.  You  can  see,  by  the  bend- 
ing of  the  flame,  that  there  is  a  current  of  air  setting  outward  at  the  top, 
and  another  setting  inward  at  the  bottom  of  the  opening.  2.  Hold  a  hand- 
kerchief loosely  in  front  of  a  fire-place,  and  it  will  be  drawn  strongly  toward 
the  opening ;  or,  if  you  hold  there  a  smoldering  paper,  the  smoke  will 
ascend  the  flue, — both  being  caused  by  the  difference  of  temperature 
between  the  air  in  the  room  and  the  outside  atmosphere.  Upon  this  differ- 
ence of  temperature  all  ordinary  ventilation  is  based. 


62  RESPIRATION  AND  THE  VOICE. 

A  proper  treatment  of  this  subject  and  its  practical  applications  would 
require  a  book  by  itself.  There  ie  room  here  for  only  a  few  general  state- 
ments and  suggestions. 

1.  Two  openings  are  always  necessary  to  produce  a  thorough  change 
of  the  air. 

Experiments.— (1. )  Put  a  lighted  candle  in  a  bottle.  The  flame  will 
soon  be  extinguished.  The  oxygen  of  the  little  air  in  the  bottle  is  burned 
out,  and  carbonic  acid  has  taken  its  place.  (2. )  Now  place  over  the  mouth 
of  the  bottle  a  lamp-chimney,  and  insert  in  the  chimney  a  strip  of  card- 
board, thus  dividing  the  passage.  On  relighting  the  candle,  it  will  burn 
freely.  The  smoke  of  a  bit  of  smoldering  paper  will  show  that  two  opposite 
currents  of  air  are  established,  one  setting  into  the  bottle,  the  other  out- 
ward. 

2.  In  the  winter,  when  our  school-rooms,  churches,  etc.,  are  heated 
artificially,  the  required  difference  of  temperature  is  kept  up  with  little 
difficulty.      The  fresh  air  admitted  to  the  room  should  then  be  heated 
either  by  a  furnace,  or  by  passing  over  a  stove,  or  through  a  coil  of  steam- 
pipes.     This  cold  air  should  always  be  taken  directly  from  out-doors,  and  not 
from  a  cellar,  or  under  a  piazza,  where  contamination  is  possible.     In  order 
to  remove  the  impure  air,  there  should  be  ventilators  provided  at  or  near 
the    floor,   opening   into  air-shafts  or  pipes  leading   upward  through  the 
roof,  having  proper  orifices  at  the  top.     These  ventilating-pipes  should  be 
heated  artificially  so  as  to  produce  a  draft. 

3.  In  the  summer,  ventilation  may  be  commonly  provided  for  by  opening 
windows  at  the  top  and  the  bottom,  on  the  sheltered  side  of  the  building,  so 
as  to  avoid  drafts  of  air  injurious  to  the  occupants.     On  a  dull,  still,  hot 
day,  when  there  is  little  difference  of  temperature  between  the  inner  and 
the  outer  air,  ventilation  can  be  secured  only  by  having  a  fire  provided  in 
the  ventilating  shaft ;  this,  by  exhausting  the  air  from  the  room,  will  cause 
a  fresh  current  to  pour  in  through  the  open  windows.     At  recess,  if  the 
weather  permit,  all  the  children  should  be  sent  out-doors,   to  allow  the 
clothing  to  be  exposed  to  the  purifying  influence  of  the  open  air,  and  the 
windows  should  be  thrown  wide  open,  to  ventilate  the  room  thoroughly. 
In  bad  weather,  rapid  marching  or  calisthenic  exercises  will  furnish  exer- 
cise, and  also  permit  the  airing  of  the  room. 

4.  The  school  and  the  church  are  the  centers  for  spreading  contagious 
diseases.     The  former  is  especially  dangerous,   and  therefore  great  pains 
shoujd  be  taken  to  exclude  pupils  attacked  by  or  recovering  from  diph- 


VENTILATION.  63 

theria,  scarlet-fever,  whooping-cough,  etc.,  and  even   those  who  live  in 
houses  where  such  sickness  exists. 

5.  In  our  houses,  the  air  is  often  contaminated  by  decaying  vegetables 
and  other  filth  in  the  cellar  ;  by  bad  air  drawn  up  into  the  cellar  from  the 
soil,  in  consequence  of  the  powerful  draughts  that  our  fires  create  ;  by  de- 
fective gas  and  waste-pipes  that  let  the  foul  air  from  cesspool  or  sewer- 
spread  through  the  house  ;  and  by  piles  of  refuse,  or  puddles  of  slops  emp- 
tied at  the  back-door.  At  the  same  time,  the  water  in  our  wells,  or  in 
streams  that  supply  our  towns  and  cities,  receives  too  often  the  drainage 
from  out-houses  and  barn-yards,  and  so  aids  in  introducing  the  most  dan- 
gerous poisons  into  our  systems. 

Open  fire-places  should  be  common,  since  they  are  efficient  ventilators ; 
they  should  never  be  closed  for  any  cause.  Fresh  air  admitted  by  a 
hot-air  register  and  impure  air  passed  out  by  a  chimney,  form  a  simple  and 
thorough  system.  Our  sleeping- apartments  demand  especial  care.  As  soon 
as  the  occupants  leave  the  room,  the  bed-clothes  should  be  removed,  and 
laid  on  the  backs  of  chairs  to  air  ;  the  bed  be  shaken  up  ;  and  the  windows 
thrown  wide  open.  In  the  summer,  the  windows  may  be  closed  before  the 
sun  is  high  ;  the  house  is  then  left  filled  with  the  cool  morning  air.  In 
clamp  and  cold  weather,  a  fire  should  be  lighted  in  sleeping- apartments, 
particularly  if  used  by  children  or  delicate  persons,  in  order  to  dry  the 
bed-clothing,  and  also  to  prevent  a  chill  on  the  part  of  the  occupants. 

Wonders  of  Respiration. — The  perfection  of  the 
organs  of  respiration  challenges  our  admiration. 
So  delicate  are  they  that  the  least  pressure  would 
cause  exquisite  pain,  yet  tons  of  air  surge  to  and  fro 
through  their  intricate  passages,  and  bathe  their 
innermost  cells.  We  yearly  perform  at  least  7,000,000 
acts  of  breathing,  inhaling  100,000  cubic  feet  of  air, 
and  purifying  over  3,500  tons  of  blood.  This  gigantic 
process  goes  on  constantly,  never  wearies  or  worries 
us,  and  we  wonder  at  it  only  when  science  reveals 
to  us  its  magnitude.  In  addition,  by  a  wise  econ- 
omy, the  process  of  respiration  is  made  to  subserve 


64 


RESPIRATION  AND   THE  VOICE. 


a  second  use  no  less  important,  and  the  air  we 
exhale,  passing  through  the  organs  of  voice,  is 
transformed  into  prayers  of  faith,  songs  of  hope, 
and  words  of  social  cheer. 

Diseases. — 1.  CONSTRICTION  OF  THE  LUNGS  is  produced  by  tight 
clothing.     The  ribs  are  thus  forced  inward,  the  size  of  the  chest  is  dimin- 


Fig.  28. 


A.  B. 

A,  the  natural  position  of  the  Internal  organs.  B,  when  deformed  by  tight  lacing. 
MARSHALL  says  that  the  liver  and  the  stomach  have,  in  this  way,  been  forced  down- 
ward almost  as  low  as  the  pelvis. 

ished,  and  the  amount  of  inhaled  air  decreased.  Stiff  clothing,  and 
especially  a  garment  that  will  not  admit  of  a  full  breath  without  inconve- 
nience, will  prevent  that  free  movement  of  the  ribs  so  essential  to  health. 
Any  violation  of  the  laws  of  respiration,  even  though  it  be  fashionable,  will 
surely  result  in  diminished  vitality  and  vigor. 


PRACTICAL  QUESTIONS.  65 

2.  PNEUMONIA  (pneuma,  breath)  is  an  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  affect- 
ing chiefly  the  air-cells. 

3.  CONSUMPTION  is  a  disease  which  destroys  the  substance  of  the  lungs. 
Like  other  lung  difficulties,  it  is  caused  largely  by  a  want  of  pure  air,  a 
liberal  supply  of  which  is  the  best  treatment  that  can  be  prescribed  for  it. 

4.  DIPHTHERIA   (dipMhera,  a  membrane)   is  a  kind  of  sore-throat,  in 
which  matter  exudes  from  the  mucous  membrane.     This  stiffens  into  a 
peculiar  white  substance,  which  appears  in  patches.      Fever  and  debility 
accompany  this  disease,  which  is  so  rapid  and  insidious  in  its  advances  as 
to  be  exceedingly  dreaded. 

5.  CROUP  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  larynx 
and  trachea.     The  attack  frequently  comes  on  suddenly,   and  usually  in 
the  night.     It  is  accompanied  by  a  peculiar    "brassy,"'    ringing  cough, 
which,  once  heard,  can  never  be  mistaken.     It  may  prove  fatal  within  a 
few  hours.     (See  Appendix. ) 

6.  STAMMERING  depends,  not  on  defects  of  the  muscles,  but  on  a  want 
of  due  control  of  the  mind.     When  a  stammerer  is  not  too  conscious  of  his 
lack,  and  tries  to  form  his  words  slow'ly,  he  speaks  plainly,  and  may  sing 
well,  for  then  his  words  must  come  in  time.     The  stammerer  should  find 
out  his  peculiar  difficulty,  and  overcome  it  by  exercise,  and  especially  by 
speaking  only  after  a  full  inspiration. 


PRACTICAL     QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  the  philosophy  of  "  the  change  of  voice  "  in  a  boy  ? 

2.  Why  can  we  see  our  breath  on  a  frosty  moining  ? 

3.  When  a  law  of  health  and  a  law  of  fashion  conflict,  which  should  we 
obey  ? 

4.  If  we  use  a  "bunk"  bed,  should  we  pack  away  the  clothes  when  we 
first  rise  in  the  morning  ? 

5.  Why  should  a  clothes-press  be  well  ventilated  ? 

6.  Should  the   weight  of  our   clothing  hang  from   the  waist*  or  the 
shoulder  ? 

7.  Describe  the  effects  of  living  in  an  overheated  room. 

8.  What  habits  impair  the  power  of  the  lungs  ? 

9.  For  full,   easy  breathing  in  singing,   should  we  use  the  diaphragm 
and  lower  ribs,  or  the  upper  ribs  alone 


66 


RESPIRATION  AND   THE  VOICE. 


10.  Why  is  it  better  to  breathe  through  the  nose  than  the  mouth  ? 

11.  Why  should  not  a  speaker  talk  while  returning  home  on  a  cold  night 
after  a  lecture  ? 

12.  What  part  of  the  body  needs  the  loosest  clothing  ? 

13.  What  part  needs  the  warmest  ? 

14.  Why  is  a  "spare  bed "  generally  unhealthful ? 

15.  Is  there  any  good  in  sighing  ? 

16.  Should  a  hat  be  thoroughly  ventilated  ?     How  ? 


BLACKBOARD      ANALYSIS. 


1.  ORGANS  op  VOICE 


2.  ORGANS    op    RESPIRA- 
TION. 


1.  The  Larynx. 

2.  The  Vocal  Cords. 

3.  Different  Tones  of  Voice. 

4.  Formation  of  Vocal  Sounds. 

f1.  The  Trachea. 

I  2.  The  Bronchial  Tubes 

I  3.  The  Cells. 

,4.  The  Lung- wrapping. 


MODIFICATIONS  OP  THE 
BREATH. 


'1.  Coughing. 

2.  Sneezing. 

3.  Snoring. 


I  4.  Laughing,  and  Crying. 

\5, 


5.  CAPACITY  or  THIS  LUNGS. 


6.  HYGIENE. 


Hiccough. 


The  Need  of  Air. 
Composition  of  the  Air. 
Action  of  Air  in  the  Lungs. 
Tests  of  the  Breath. 
Analysis  of  expired  Air. 
Effect  of  re-breathed  Air. 

a.  The  Sources  of  Im- 
purity. 

b   The  Sick-room. 

c.  The  Sitting-room. 

d.  The  Church. 


e.  The  Bed- room. 

f.  The  School-room. 

1  g.  How     we     shoulc; 
ventilate. 


7.  THE  WONDERS  OP  RESPIRATION. 


Constriction  of  the  Lungs. 

Pneumonia. 
/  t,.  Consumption. 

8.  DISEASES <  4   Diphtheria. 

1  5.  Croup. 

\6.  Stammering. 


THE    CIRCULATION. 


THE  Organs  of  the  Circulation  are  the  heart,  the 
arteries,  the  veins,  and  the  capillaries. 
The  Blood  is  the  liquid  by  means  of  which  the 
circulation  is  effected.      It  permeates  every  part  of 
the  body,  except  the  cuticle,  nails,  hair,  etc.      The 
average  quantity  in  each  person  is  about  eighteen 
pounds.     It  is  composed  of  a  thin,  colorless  liquid 

Fig.  29. 


A,  corpuscles  of  human  blood,  highly  magnified  ;  B,  corpuscles  in  the  blood 
of  an  animal  (a  non-mammal). 

(plasma),  filled  with  red  disks,  or  cells,  so  small  that 
3,500  placed  side  by  side  would  measure  only  about 
an  inch.  They  have  a  tendency  to  collect  in  piles 
like  rolls  of  coin.  The  size  and  shape  vary  in  the 
blood  of  different  animals.  Disks  are  continually 


68  THE  CIRCULATION. 

forming  in  the  blood,   and  as  constantly  dying— 
20,000,003  at  every  breath.— (Draper). 

Experiment. — Get  a  drop  of  blood  by  pricking  the  end  of  your  finger 
with  a  needle.  Place  it  on  the  slide,  cover  with  a  glass,  and  put  it  at 
once  under  the  microscope.  You  will  see  that  the  red  disks  group  them- 
selves in  rows,  while  the  white  disks— of  which  there  is  only  one  to  every 
three  or  four  hundred  red  ones — will  seem  to  draw  apart,  and  to  change 
their  form  continually. 

The  plasma  also  contains  fibrin,  albumen — which 
is  found  nearly  pure  in  the  white  of  an  egg — and 
also  various  mineral  substances,  as  iron,  lime,  mag- 
nesia, phosphorus,  potash,  etc. 

Uses  of  the  Blood. — The  blood  has  been  called 
"liquid  flesh";  but  it  is  more  than  that,  since  it 
contains  the  materials  for  making  every  organ.  The 
plasma  is  rich  in  mineral  matter  for  the  bones,  and 
in  albumen  for  the  muscles.  The  red  disks  are  the 
air-cells  of  the  blood.  They  contain  the  oxygen  so 
essential  to  every  operation  of  life.  Wherever  there 
is  work  to  be  done  or  repairs  to  be  made,  there  the 
oxygen  is  needed.  It  stimulates  to  action,  and  tears 
down  all  that  is  worn  out.  In  this  process,  it  com- 
bines with  and  actually  burns  out  parts  of  the 
muscles  and  other  tissues,  as  wood  is  burned  in  the 
stove.  The  blood,  now  foul  with  the  burned  matter, 
the  ashes  of  this  fire,  is  caught  up  by  the  circulation, 
and  whirled  back  to  the  lungs,  where  it  is  purified, 
and  again  sent  bounding  on  its  way. 

Coagulation. — When  blood  is  exposed  to  the  air,  it 
coagulates.  This  is  caused  by  the  solidifying  of  the 
fibrin,  which,  entangling  the  disks,  forms  the  "clot." 
The  remaining  clear,  yellow  liquid  is  the  serum. 


THE  HEAKT. 


69 


The  coagulation  soon  checks  all  ordinary  cases  of 
bleeding.  When  a  wound  is  made,  and  bleeding 
commences,  the  fibrin  forms  a  temporary  plug,  as  it 
were,  which  is  absorbed  when  the  healing  process  is 
finished.  Thus  we  see  how  a  Divine  foresight  has 
provided  not  only  for  the  ordinary  wants  of  the 
body,  but  also  for  the  accidents  to  which  it  is  liable. 


The  Heart.    A,  the  right  ventricle  ;  B,  the  left  ventricle ;  C,  the  right  auricle  ; 
D,  the  left  auricle ;    M,  the  Aorta. 

The  Heart  is  the  engine  which  propels  the  blood. 
It  is  a  hollow,  pear-shaped  muscle,  about  the  size  of 
the  fist.  It  hangs,  point  downward,  just  to  the  left 
of  the  center  of  the  chest  (Fig.  27).  It  is  enclosed  in 


70  THE   CIRCULATION. 

a  loose  sac  of  membrane  (the  pericardium),  that  is 
smooth  as  satin. 

The  Movements  of  the  Heart  consist  of  an  alter- 
nate contraction  and  expansion.  These  constitute 
the  beating  of  the  heart  which  we  hear  so  distinctly 
between  the  fifth  and  sixth  ribs. 

Experiment. — Place  your  ear  over  another  person's  heart.  You  can 
detect  two  sounds  ;  the  first,  as  the  blood  is  leaving  the  heart ;  the  second, 
as  it  falls  into  the  pockets  of  the  arteries,  and  the  valves  strike  together. 
During  the  first,  the  two  ventricles  contract ;  during  the  second,  the  two 
auricles. 

Fig.  31. 


Chambers  of  the  Heart.  A,  right  ventricle  ;  B,  left  ventricle ;  C,  right  auricle  • 
D,  left  auricle  ;  E,  tricuspid  valve  ;  F,  bicuspid  valve  ;  G,  semi-lunar  valves ;  H, 
valve  of  the  aorta  ;  I,  inferior  vena  cava ;  K,  superior  vena  cava  ;  L,  L,  pulmonary 
veins. 

The  Auricles  and  Ventricles. — The  heart  is  divided 
into  four  chambers.  In  an  adult,  each  holds  about 
a  wine-glassful.  The  upper  ones,  from  appendages 


NEED   OF  TALVES  IN  THE  HEART.  71 

on  the  outside  resembling  the  ears  of  a  dog,  are 
called  auricles  (aures,  ears) ;  the  lower  ones  are 
termed  ventricles.  The  auricle  and  ventricle  on  each 
side  communicate  with  each  other,  but  the  right  and 
left  halves  of  the  heart  are  entirely  distinct,  and  per- 
form different  kinds  of  work.  The  left  side  propels 
the  red  blood  ;  and  the  right,  the  dark. 

The  auricles  are  merely  reservoirs  to  receive  the 
blood,  and  to  furnish  it  to  the  ventricles  as  they 
need.  Their  work  being  light,  their  walls  are  thin 
and  weak.  On  the  other  hand,  the  ventricles  force 
the  blood,  and  are,  therefore,  made  very  strong.  As 
the  left  ventricle  drives  the  blood  so  much  further 
than  the  right,  it  is  thicker  and  stronger. 

Need  of  Valves  in  the  Heart. — As  the  auricles  do 
not  need  to  contract  with 

Fig. 

much  force  simply  to  empty 
their  contents  into  the  ven- 
tricles below  them,  there  is 
no  demand  for  any  special 
contrivance  to  prevent  the 
blood  from  setting  back  the 

_  .  Valves  of  the  Veins. 

wrong  way.    But,  when  the 

strong  ventricles  contract,  some  arrangement  is 
necessary  to  prevent  its  escaping  into  the  auricle 
again.  Besides,  when  they  expand,  the  "suction 
power"  would  tend  to  draw  back  again  from  the 
arteries  all  the  blood  just  forced  out.  This  difficulty 
is  obviated  by  little  doors,  or  valves,  which  will  not 
let  the  blood  go  the  wrong  way. 

Experiment. — The  heart  of  an  ox  or  a  sheep  may  be  used  to  show  the 
chambers  and  valves.  The  aorta  (see  Fig.  30  and  p.  75)  should  be  cut  as 


72  THE  CIRCULATION. 

far  as  possible  from  the  heart,  and  then,  by  pumping  in  water,  the  perfec- 
tion of  the  valves  will  be  finely  exhibited.  The  ingenious  pupil  will  devise 
a  method  of  illustrating  the  circulation  of  the  blood  as  represented  in  Fig. 
34,  and  thus  obtain  a  clear  idea  of  the  action  of  this  complex  muscular 
organ — the  heart. 


The  Tricuspid  and  Bicuspid  Valves.— At  the 
opening  into  the  right  ventricle,  is  a  valve  consisting 
of  three  folds  or  flaps  of  membrane,  whence  it  is 
called  the  tri-cuspid  valve  (tri,  three  ;  and  cuspides, 
points),  and  in  the  left  ventricle,  one  containing  two 
flaps,  and  named  the  bi-cuspid  valve.  These  hang 
so  loosely  as  to  oppose  no  resistance  to  the  passage 
of  the  blood  into  the  ventricles  ;  but,  if  any  attempts 
to  go  the  other  way,  it  gets  between  the  flaps  and 
the  walls  of  the  heart,  and,  driving  them  outward, 
closes  the  orifice. 

The  Semi-lunar  Valves. — In  the  passages  outward 
from  the  ventricles,  are  the  semi-lunar  valves,  so 
called  from  their  half -moon  shape.  Each  consists  of 
three  little  pocket-shaped  folds  of  membrane,  with 
their  openings  in  the  direction  which  the  blood  is  to 
take.  When  it  sets  back,  they  fill,  and,  swelling 
out,  close  the  passage  (Fig.  32). 

The  Arteries  are  the  tube-like  canals  which  convey 
the  blood  from  the  heart.  They  are  composed  of  an 
elastic  tissue,  which  yields  at  every  throb  of  the 
heart,  and  then  slowly  contracts  again,  keeping  the 
blood  in  motion  during  the  expansion  of  the  heart. 
The  elasticity  of  the  arteries  acts  like  the  air-cham- 
ber of  a  fire-engine,  which  converts  the  intermittent 
jerks  of  the  brakes  or  pump  into  the  steady  stream 
of  the  hose-nozzle. 


0  0  0  0  »•  ••"•«©<$>  0 1 
HE    CAPILLARIES.  73 

The  Pulse. — At  the  wrist  (radial  artery)  and  on 
the  temple  (temporal  artery)  we  can  feel  the  expan- 
sion of  the  artery  by  each  little  wave  of  blood  set  in 
motion  by  the  contraction  of  the  heart.  In  health, 
there  are  about  seventy-two  pulsations  per  minute. 
They  increase  with  excitement  or  inflammation, 
weaken  with  loss  of  vigor,  and  are  modified  by 
nearly  every  disease.  The  physician,  therefore,  finds 
the  pulse  a  good  index  of  the  state  of  the  system  and 
the  character  of  the  disorder. 

The  Veins  are  the  tube-like  canals  which  convey 
the  blood  to  the  heart.  As  they  do  not  receive  the 
direct  impulse  of  the  heart,  their  walls  are  much 
thinner  and  less  elastic  than  those  of  the  arteries. 
At  first  small,  they  increase  in  size  and  diminish  in 
number  as  they  gradually  pour  into  one  another,  like 
tiny  rills  collecting  to  form  two  rivers,  the  vena  cava 
ascending  and  the  vena  cava  descending  (Fig.  34), 
which  empty  into  the  right  auricle. 

Valves  similar  in  construction  to  those  already 
described  are  placed  at  convenient  intervals,  to  guide 
the  blood  in  its  course  and  prevent  its  setting  back- 
ward. 

Experiment.— Press  your  finger  on  the  upper  part  of  one  of  the  blue 
veins  running  along  your  arm  toward  your  hand,  and  then  pass  it  down- 
ward so  as  to  drive  the  blood  backward.  Swellings  like  little  knots  will 
appear.  Each  of  these  marks  the  location  of  a  valve,  closed  by  the  blood 
you  push  before  your  finger.  Remove  the  pressure,  and  the  valve  will 
open,  the  blood  set  forward,  and  the  vein  collapse  to  its  former  size. 

The  Capillaries  (capillus,  a  hair)  form  a  fine  net- 
work of  tubes,  connecting  the  ends  of  the  arteries 
with  the  veins.  So  closely  are  they  placed,  that  we 


u 


THE   CIRCULATION. 


cannot  prick  the  flesh  with  a  needle  without  injur- 
ing, perhaps,  hundreds  of  them.  The  air-cells  of  the 
blood  deposit  there  their  oxygen,  and  receive  car- 
bonic acid,  while  in  the  delicate  capillaries  of  the 
lungs  they  give  up  their  load  of  carbonic  acid  in  ex- 
change for  oxygen. 

Experiment.— Stretch,  by  means  of  twine  and  small  splints,  the 
transparent  web  of  a  living  frog's  foot,  and  place  it  under  the  microscope. 
You  will  see  the  blood  disks  winding  in  single  file  through  the  intricate 
meshes  of  the  capillaries,  darting  hither  and  thither,  now  pausing,  swaying 
to  and  fro  with  an  uncertain  motion,  and  anon  dashing  ahead  again. 

Fig.  33. 


Circulation  of  the  Blood  in  the  Web  of  a  Frog's  Foot,  highly  magnified.  A,  an 
artery  ;  B,  capillaries  crowded  with  disks,  owiiig  to  a  rupture  just  above,  where  the 
disks  are  jammed  into  an  adjacent  mesh ;  C,  a  deeper  vetn ;  the  black  spots  are  pig- 
ment cells.- 

The  Circulation  consists  of  two  parts — the  lesser, 
and  the  greater. 

2.  THE  LESSER  CIRCULATION.— The  dark  blood 
from  the  veins  collects  in  the  right  auricle,  and, 
going  through  the  tricuspid  valve,  empties  into  the 
right  ventricle.  Thence  it  is  driven  past  the  semi- 
lunar  valves,  through  the  pulmonary  artery,  to  the 
lungs.  After  circulating  through  the  fine  capil- 


THE    GREATER   CIRCULATION. 


75 


Fig  3k. 


Diagram  illustrating  the  Circulation  of  the  blood.  A,  vena  cava  descending  (su- 
perior) ;  Z,  vena  cava  ascending  (inferior) ;  C,  right  auricle ;  D,  right  ventricle  ; 
E,  pulmonary  artery ;  F  P,  lungs  and  pulmonary  veins ;  G,  left  auricle ;  H,  left 
ventricle  ;  I,  K,  aorta.— MARSHALL. 

laries  of  the  air-cells,  it  is  returned,  bright  and 
red,  through  the  four  pulmonary  veins,  to  the  left 
auricle. 

2.  THE  GREATER  CIRCULATION.  —  From  the  left 
auricle,  the  blood  is  forced  past  the  bicuspid  valve  to 
the  left  ventricle  ;  thence  it  is  driven  through  the 
semi-lunar  valves  into  the  great  aorta,  the  main 
trunk  of  the  arterial  system.  Passing  through  the 
arteries,  capillaries,  and  veins,  it  returns  through 


76  THE   CIRCULATION. 

the  vense  cavse,  ascending  and  descending  (Fig.  34), 
and  gathers  again  in  the  right  auricle. 

Velocity  of  the  Blood. — It  has  been  estimated  that 
a  portion  of  the  blood  will  make  the  tour  of  the  body 
in  about  twenty-three  seconds,  and  that  the  entire 
mass  passes  through  the  heart  in  from  one  to  two 
minutes. 

Distribution  and  Regulation  of  the  Heat  of  the 
Body. — 1.  DISTRIBUTION. — The  natural  temperature 
is  about  98°.  This  is  kept  up  by  the  action  of  the 
oxygen  within  us.  Each  capillary  tube  is  a  tiny 
stove,  where  oxygen  is  combining  with  the  tissues 
of  the  body.  Every  contraction  of  a  muscle  de- 
velops heat.  The  warmth  so  produced  is  distributed 
by  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  Thus  the  arteries, 
veins,  and  capillaries  form  a  series  of  hot-water 
pipes,  through  which  the  heated  liquid  is  forced  by 
a  pump — the  heart — while  the  heat  is  maintained  by 
a  multitude  of  little  fires  placed  here  and  there  along 
its  course. 

2.  REGULATION. — The  temperature  of  the  body  is 
regulated  by  means  of  the  pores  of  the  skin  and 
those  of  the  mucous  membrane  in  the  air-passages. 
When  the  system  becomes  too  warm,  the  blood- 
vessels on  the  surface  expand,  the  blood  fills  them, 
the  fluid  leaks  into  the  perspiratory  glands,  pours  out 
upon  the  exterior,  and  by  evaporation  cools  the  body. 

When  the  temperature  of  the  body  is  too  low,  the 
vessels  contract,  less  blood  goes  to  the  surface,  the 
perspiration  decreases,  and  the  loss  of  heat  by  evapo- 
ration diminishes. 

Life  by  Death. — The  body  is  being  incessantly  cor- 


WONDERS  OF  THE   HEART.  77 

roded  by  the  tireless  oxygen.  The  scales  of  the 
cuticle  are  constantly  falling  off  and  being  replaced 
from  the  cutis.  The  disks  of  the  blood  die,  and  new 
ones  spring  into  being.  Every  act  is  a  destructive- 
one.  Not  a  bend  of  the  finger,  not  a  wink  of  the 
eye,  not  a  thought  of  the  brain  but  is  at  some  ex- 
pense of  the  machine  itself.  Every  process  of  life  is 
thus  a  process  of  death.  The  more  rapidly  this 
change  goes  on,  and  fresh,  vigorous  tissue  takes  the 
place  of  the  old,  the  healthier  and  stronger  we  are. 

Change  of  our  Bodies. — There  is  a  belief  that  our 
bodies  change  once  in  seven  years.  From  the  nature 
of  the  case,  the  rate  must  vary  with  the  labor  we 
perform ;  the  organs  most  used  altering  oftenest. 
Probably  the  parts  of  the  body  in  incessant  employ- 
ment are  reorganized  many  times  in  a  single  year. 

Wonders  of  the  Heart. — This  marvelous  little 
engine  throbs  on  continually  at  the  rate  of  100,000 
beats  per  day,  40,000,000  per  year,  often  3,000,000,000 
without  a  stop.  Its  vitality  is  amazing.  Lay  upon 
a  table  the  heart  from  a  freshly-caught  sturgeon,  all 
palpitating  with  life,  and  it  will  beat  for  days  as  if 
itself  a  living  creature.  The  most  tireless  of  organs 
while  life  exists,  the  heart  is  one  of  the  last  to  yield 
when  life  expire*.  So  long  as  a  flutter  lingers  there, 
we  know  the  spark  of  being  is  not  quite  extin- 
guished, and  there  is  hope  of  restoration.  During  a 
long  life  it  will  propel  half  a  million  tons  of  blood, 
yet,  with  unfaltering  labor,  repair  itself  as  fast  as  it 
wastes,  patiently  keeping  up  the  play  of  its  valves 
and  the  rhythm  of  its  throb  till  "the  wheels  of  life 
stand  still." 


78  THE   CIRCULATION. 

The  Lymphatic  Circulation. — In  nearly  every  part 
of  the  body,  mingled  with  the  blood  -  capillaries, 
is  a  second  series  of  capillaries,  termed  the  Lym- 
phatics. Most  of  them  converge  into  the  thoracic 
duct — a  small  tube,  about  the  size  of  a  goose-quill, 
emptying  into  the  great  veins  of  the  neck  (Fig.  35). 

Fig.  S5. 


Lymphatics  of  the  head  and  neck,  showing  the  glands  and,  B,  the  thoracic  duct,  as 
it  empties  into  the  left  innominate  vein  at  the  junction  of  the  left  jugular  and  sub- 
daman  veins. 

Along  their  course,  the  lymphatics  pass  through 
glands, — hard,  pinkish  bodies  of  all  sizes,  from  that 
of  a  hemp-seed  to  an  almond.  These  glands  are  often 
enlarged  by  disease,  and  are  then  easily  felt. 

THE  LYMPH,  which  circulates  through  the  lym- 
phatics like  blood  through  the  veins,  is  a  thin,  color- 
less liquid,  very  like  the  serum.  This  fluid,  probably 
in  part  an  overflow  from  the  blood-vessels,  is  gathered 
up  by  the  lymphatics,  undergoes  in  the  glands  some 


X3X 


DISEASES.  79 

process  of  preparation  not  well  understood,  and  is 
then  returned  to  the  circulation. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. — The  poisonous  ingredients  of  most 
cosmetics  and  hair-dyes  are  absorbed  by  the  lym- 
phatics, and  so  carried  into  the  system.  The  same 
result  occurs  when  persons  poison  their  hands  with 
the  common  wood-ivy.  Animals  that  hibernate  are 
supported  during  the  winter  by  the  fat  which  their 
absorbents  carry  into  the  circulation  from  the  extra 
supply  they  have  laid  up  during  the  summer.  In 
famine  or  in  sickness,  a  man  unconsciously  con- 
sumes his  own  flesh. 

Diseases. — 1.  CONGESTION  is  an  unnatural  accumulation  of  blood  in 
any  part  of  the  body.  The  excess  is  indicated  by  the  redness.  Thus, 
when  we  put  our  feet  in  hot  water,  the  capillaries  expand  by  the  heat,  and 
the  blood  sets  that  way  to  fill  them.  Blushing  is  a  temporary  congestion. 
The  capillaries,  being  expanded  only  for  an  instant  by  the  nervous  excite- 
ment, contract  again  and  expel  the  blood. 

2.  INFLAMMATION  means  simply  a  burning.      When  there  is  irritation 
or  an  injury  at  any  spot,  the  blood  sets  thither  and  reddens  it.     This  extra 
supply,  both  by  its  presence  and  the  friction  of  the  swiftly-moving  cur- 
rents, causes  heat.     The  pressure  of  the  distended  vessels  upon  the  nerves 
frets  them,  and  produces  pain.     The  swelling  stretches  the  walls  of  the 
blood-vessels,  and  the  serum  or  lymph  oozes  through.     The  four  charac- 
teristics of  an  inflammation  are  redness,  heat,  pain,  and  swelling. 

3.  BLEEDING,  if  from  an  artery,  will  be  of  red  blood,  and  will  come  in 
jets  ;  if  from  the  veins,  it  will  be  of  dark  blood,  and  will  flow  in  a  steady 
stream.     If  only  a  small  vessel  be  severed,  it  may  be  checked  by  a  piece  of 
cloth  held  or  bound  firmly  upon  the  wound.     If  a  large  trunk  be  cut,  es- 
pecially in  a  limb,  make  a  knot  in  a  handkerchief  and  tie  it  loosely  about 
the  limb  ;  then,  placing  the  knot  on  the  wound,  with  a  short  stick  twist 
the  handkerchief  tightly  enough  to  stop  the  flow.     If  you  have  a  piece  of 
cloth  to  use  as  a  pad,  the  knot  will  be  unnecessary.     If  it  be  an  artery  that 
is  cut,  the  pressure  should  be  applied  between  the  wound  and  the  heart  ; 
if  a  vein,  beyond  the  wound.     If  you  are  alone,  and  are  severely  wounded, 


80  THE   CIRCULATION. 

or  in  an  emergency,  like  a  railroad  accident,  use  the  remedy  which  has 
saved  many  a  life  upon  the  battle-field, — bind  or  hold  a  handful  of  dry 
earth  upon  the  wound,  elevate  the  part,  and  await  surgical  assistance. 

4.  SCROFULA  is  generally  inherited.     It  affects  the  lymphatic  glands, 
commonly  those  of  the  neck,  forming  "kernels,"  as  they  are  called.     Per- 
sons inheriting  this  disease  can  ward  off  its  insidious  approaches  only  by 
the  utmost  care  in  diet  and  exercise  ;  by  the  use  of  pure  air,  and  warm 
clothing  ;  and  by  avoiding  late  hours,  and  all  excitants.     Insufficient  or 
improper  food,  and  lack  of  ventilation,  rapidly  develop  the  latent  seeds  of 
this  disease. 

5.  A  COLD.  — "We  change  to  a  thinner  dress,  or,  when  heated,  sit  in  a  cool 
place.   The  skin  is  chilled,  and  the  perspiration  checked.   The  blood,  no  longer 
cleansed  and  reduced  in  volume  by  the  drainage  through  the  pores,  sets  to  the 
lungs  for  purification.    That  organ  is  oppressed,  breathing  becomes  difficult, 
and  the  extra  mucus  secreted  by  the  irritated  surface  of  the  membrane  is 
thrown  off  by  coughing.    The  mucous  membrane  of  the  nasal  chamber  sym- 
pathizes with  the  difficulty,  and  we  have  "  a  cold  in  the  head,"  or  a  catarrh. 
In  general,  the  excess  of  blood  seeks  the  weakest  point,  and  develops  there 
any  latent  disease.    Thus,  a  party  go  out  to  walk  and  are  caught  in  a  rain  ; 
or,  coming  home  from  a  heated  assembly,  throw  off  their  coats  to  enjoy  the 
cool  breeze.     The  next  day,  one  has  a  fever,  another  a  slight  headache, 
another  pleurisy,   another   pneumonia,   another   rheumatism,   while  some 
escape  without  injury.     The  last  had  enough  vital  force  to  withstand  the 
disturbance,  but  the  others  had  weak  points,  to  which  the  excess  of  blood 
has  gone,  producing  congestion.      The  first  necessity  is  to  restore  a  regular 
circulation  of  the  blood.      Put  the  feet  in  hot  water  and  let  them  become 
gorged  with  the  blood  thus  called  from  the  congested  organs.     Or,  go  im- 
mediately to  bed,  and  with  hot  drinks  and  extra  clothing  open  the  pores, 
and  induce  free  perspiration.     This  calls  the  blood  to  the  surface,  and,  by 
equalizing  the  circulation,  affords  relief. 

The  rule  for  the  prevention  and  cure  of  a  cold  is  to  keep  the  blood  upon 
the  surface. 


ALCOHOLIC  DRINKS  AND  NARCOTICS.  81 

ALCOHOLIC    DRINKS    AND    NARCOTICS. 
I.— ALCOHOL. 

How  Alcohol  is  Formed  by  Fermentation. — When 
any  substance  containing  sugar,  as  fruit- juice,  is 
caused  to  ferment,  the  elements  of  hydrogen,  carbon, 
and  oxygen,  of  which  the  sugar  is  composed,  re- 
arrange themselves  so  as  to  form  carbonic  acid,  alco- 
hol, and  certain  volatile  oils  and  ethers.  The  carbonic 
acid  partly  evaporates,  and  partly  remains  to  give 
life  and  sparkle  to  the  liquor ;  the  alcohol  is  the 
intoxicating  principle  ;  while  the  oils  and  ethers  im- 
part the  peculiar  flavor.  Thus  wine  is  fermented 
grape-juice,  and  cider  is  fermented  apple-juice,  each 
having  its  distinctive  fragrance.  (For  an  account  of 
the  subject  of  Fermentation,  read  Steele's  New  Chem-> 
istry,  page  192.) 

Manufacture  of  Beer. — The  barley  used  for  making 
beer  is  first  malted,  i.e.,  sprouted,  to  turn  a  part  of 
its  starch  into  sugar.  When  this  process  has  gone 
far  enough,  it  is  checked  by  heating  the  grain  in  a 
kiln  until  the  germ  is  destroyed.  The  malt  is  then 
crushed,  steeped,  and  fermented  with  hops  and 
yeast.  The  sugar  gradually  disappears,  alcohol  is 
formed,  and  carbonic  acid  escapes  into  the  air.  The 
beer  is  then  put  into  casks,  where  it  undergoes  a 
second,  slower  fermentation,  the  flavor  ripens,  and 
the  carbonic  acid  gathers  ;  when  the  liquor  is  drawn, 
this  gas  bubbles  to  the  surface,  giving  to  the  beer  its 
sparkling,  foamy  look. 

Spirits. — Alcohol  is  so  volatile  that,  by  the  appli- 
cation of  heat,  it  can  be  driven  off  as  a  vapor  from 


THE  CIRCULATION. 

Fig.  56. 


Process  Qf  Distillation, 

the  fermented  liquid  in  which  it  has  been  produced. 
Steam  and  various  fragrant  substances  will  pass 
over  with  it,  and,  if  they  are  collected  and  condensed 
in  a  cool  receiver,  a  new  and  stronger  liquid  will  be 
formed,  having  a  distinctive  odor. 

In  this  way,  the  alcohol  of  commerce  is  distilled 
from  whisky ;  brandy,  from  wine ;  rum,  from  fer- 
mented molasses ;  whisky,  from  fermented  conr 
barley  or  potatoes  ;  and  gin,  from  fermented  barley 
and  rye,  afterward  distilled  with  juniper  berries.  In 
all  liquors,  the  base  is  alcohol.  It  comprises  from 
3  to  8  per  cent,  of  ale  and  porter,  7  to  17  per  cent,  of 
wine,  and  40  to  50  per  cent,  of  brandy  and  whisky. 
They  may  therefore  be  considered  as  alcohol  more 
or  less  diluted  with  water,  and  flavored  with  various 


THE  PROPERTIES  OF  ALCOHOL.         83 

aromatics.  In  taste,  the  different  liquors— as  brandy, 
gin,  beer,  cider,  etc., — vary  greatly,  but  they  all  pro- 
duce certain  physiological  effects  due  to  their  com- 
mon ingredient — alcohol. 

The  Properties  of  Alcohol  may  be  illustrated  in 
the  following  very  simple  manner  : 

Experiments. — 1.  Pour  a  little  alcohol  into  a  saucer  and  apply  an 
ignited  match.  The  liquid  will  suddenly  take  fire,  burning  with  intense 
heat,  but  feeble  light.  In  this  process,  alcohol  takes  up  oxygen  from  the 
air,  forming  carbonic-acid  gas,  and  water.  2.  Hold  a  red-hot  coil  of  plati- 
num wire  in  a  goblet  containing  a  few  drops  of  alcohol,  and  a  peculiar  odor 
will  be  noticed.  It  denotes  the  formation  of  aldehyde — a  substance  pro- 
duced in  the  slow  oxidation  of  alcohol.  Still  further  oxidized,  the  alcohol 
would  be  changed  into  acetic  acid — the  sour  principle  of  vinegar. 

One  of  the  most  noticeable  properties  of  alcohol  is 
its  affinity  for  water.  When  strong  alcohol  is  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  it  absorbs  moisture  and  becomes 
diluted  ;  at  the  same  time,  the  spirit  itself  evapo- 
rates. The  commercial  or  proof -spirit  is  about  one- 
half  water ;  the  strongest  holds  ten  per  cent. ;  and,  to 
obtain  absolute  or  waterless  alcohol,  requires  careful 
distillation  in  connection  with  some  substance,  as 
lime,  that  has  a  still  greater  affinity  for  water,  and 
so  can  despoil  the  alcohol. 

Experiment. — Put  the  white  of  an  egg — nearly  pure  albumen — into 
a  cup,  and  pour  upon  it  some  alcohol,  or  even  strong  brandy  ;  the  fluid 
albumen  will  coagulate,  becoming  hard  and  solid. 

Effect  of  Alcohol  on  the  Circulation.  —  During 
the  experiment  described  on  page  74,  the  influence 
of  alcohol  upon  the  blood  may  be  very  easily  tested. 
Place  on  the  web  of  the  frog's  foot  a  drop  of  dilute 
spirit.  The  blood-vessels  immediately  expand. 


84  THE  CIRCULATION. 

Channels  before  unseen  open,  and  the  blood-disks  fly 
along  at  a  brisker  rate.  Next,  touch  the  membrane 
with  a  drop  of  strong  spirit.  The  blood  channels 
quickly  contract ;  the  cells  slacken  their  speed  ;  and, 
finally,  all  motion  ceases.  The  flesh  shrivels  up  and 
dies.  The  circulation  thus  stopped  is  stopped  for- 
ever. The  part  affected  will  in  time  slough  off. 
Alcohol  has  killed  it. 

The  influence  of  alcohol  upon  the  human  system 
is  similar.  Diluted,  as  in  wine  or  whisky,  it  dilates 
the  blood-vessels,  quickens  the  circulation,  hastens 
the  heart-throbs,  and  accelerates  the  respiration. 
When  strong,  it  acts  as  a  poison.  Persons  have 
drunk  a  quantity  of  liquor  on  a  wager,  and  have 
paid  for  their  folly  with  their  life.  The  whole  of  the 
blood  in  the  heart  being  turned  into  a  clot,  the  circu- 
lation ceased,  and  death  was  instantaneous. 

Effect  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Heart. — What  means 
this  rapid  flow  of  the  blood  ?  It  shows  that  the 
heart  is  overworking.  The  nerves  that  lead  to  the 
minute  capillaries  and  regulate  the  passage  of  the 
vital  current  through  the  extreme  parts  of  the  body, 
are  paralyzed  by  this  active  narcotic.  The  tiny 
blood-vessels  at  once  expand.  This  enlargement  re- 
moves the  resistance  to  the  passage  of  the  blood, 
and  hence  to  the  beat  of  the  heart,  and  the  heart  flies 
like  the  main  spring  of  a  clock  when  the  wheels  are 
taken  out. 

Careful  experiments  show  that  two  ounces  of  alco- 
hol— an  amount  contained  in  the  daily  potations  of 
a  very  moderate  ale  or  whisky  drinker— increase  the 
heart-beats  GOOO  in  twenty-four  hours ;  a  degree  of 


EFFECT  OF  ALCOHOL  UPON  THE  HEART.      85 

work  represented  by  that  of  lifting  a  weight  of 
seven  tons  to  a  height  of  one  foot.  Reducing  this 
sum  to  ounces  and  dividing,  we  find  that  the  heart 
is  driven  to  do  extra  work  equivalent  to  lifting  seven 
ounces  one  foot  high  1493  times  each  hour  ! 

No  wonder  that  the  drinker  feels  a  reaction,  a 
physical  languor,  after  the  earliest  effects  of  his 
indulgence  have  passed  away.  The  heart  flags,  the 
brain  and  the  muscles  are  exhausted,  and  rest  and 
sleep  are  imperatively  demanded.  During  this  time 
of  excitement,  the  machinery  of  life  has  really  been 
"  running  down."  "  It  is  hard  work  to  fight  against 
alcohol ;  harder  than  rowing,  walking,  wrestling, 
coal-heaving,  or  the  tread-mill  itself." 

The  pupil  should  be  careful  to  note  here  that  alcohol  does  not  act  upon 
the  heart  directly,  and  cause  it  to  contract  with  more  force.  The  idea  that 
alcohol  gives  energy  and  activity  to  the  muscles  is  entirely  false.  It  really, 
as  we  shall  see  hereafter,  weakens  muscular  contraction.  The  enfeeble- 
ment  begins  in  the  first  stage,  and  continues  in  the  other  stages  with  in- 
creased effect.  The  heart  beats  quickly  merely  because  the  resistance  of 
the  minute  controlling  vessels  is  taken  off,  and  it  works  without  being 
under  proper  regulation.  What  is  called  a  stimulation  or  excitement  is, 
in  absolute  fact,  a  relaxation,  a  partial  paralysis  of  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant mechanisms  in  the  animal  body.  Alcohol  should  be  ranked  among 
the  narcotics. — (Richardson}. 

Long-continued  use  of  alcohol  causes  a  ' '  degenera- 
tion "  of  the  muscular  fiber  of  the  heart,  so  that  this 
organ  loses  its  old  power  to  drive  the  blood,  and, 
after  a  time,  fails  to  respond  even  to  the  spur  that 
has  urged  it  to  ruin. 

THIS  "DEGENERATION  "  of  the  various  tissues  of  the  body,  we  shall  find, 
as  we  proceed,  is  a  marked  effect  of  alcoholized  blood.  The  change  con- 


.86  THE  CIRCULATION. 

sists  in  an  excess  of  liquid,  or,  more  commonly,  in  a  deposit  of  fat.  This 
fatty  matter  is  not  an  increase  of  the  organ,  but  it  takes  the  place  of  a  part 
of  its  fiber,  thus  weakening  the  structure,  and  reducing  the  power  of  the 
tissue  to  perform  its  regular  work.  Almost  everywhere  in  the  body  we 
thus  find  cells — muscle-cells,  liver-cells,  nerve-cells,  as  the  case  may  be — 
changing,  one  by  one,  under  the  influence  of  this  potent  disorganizer,  into 
unhealthy  fat-cells.  Alcohol  has  well  been  termed,  "The  Genius  of  De- 
generation." 

The  cause  of  this  degeneration  can  be  easily  explained.  The  increased 
activity  of  the  circulation  compels  a  correspondingly-increased  activity  of 
the  cell-changes  :  but  the  essential  condition  of  healthful  change— the 
presence  of  additional  oxygen — is  wanting,  and  the  operation  is  imperfectly 
performed. 

Influence  upon  the  Membranes. — The  flush  of  the 
face  and  the  blood-shot  eye,  that  are  such  noticeable 
effects  of  even  a  small  quantity  of  liquor,  indicate 
the  condition  of  all  the  internal  organs.  The  deli- 
cate linings  of  the  stomach,  heart,  brain,  liver,  and 
lungs,  are  reddened,  and  every  tiny  vein  is  inflamed, 
like  the  blushing  nose  itself.  When  the  use  of 
liquor  is  habitual,  the  congestion,  which  at  first 
passes  slowly  away  after  each  indulgence,  becomes 
permanent,  and  the  discolored  blotched  skin  reveals 
the  state  of  the  entire  mucous  membrane. 

We  learned  on  page  39  what  a  peculiar  office  the 
membrane  fills  in  nourishing  the  organs  it  enwraps. 
Anything  that  disturbs  its  delicate  structure  must 
mar  its  efficiency.  Alcohol  has  a  wonderful  affinity 
for  water.  To  satisfy  this  greed,  it  will  absorb 
moisture  from  the  tissues  with  which  it  comes  in 
contact,  as  well  as  from  their  lubricating  juices. 

The  enlargement  and  permanent  congestion  of  the 
blood-vessels  must  interfere  with  the  filtering  action 


EFFECT  UPON  THE  BLOOD.  8? 

of  the  membrane.  In  time,  all  the  membranes 
become  dry,  thickened,  and  hardened ;  they  then 
shrink  upon  the  sensitive  nerve,  or  stiffen  the  joint, 
or  enfeeble  the  muscle.  The  function  of  these  mem- 
branes being  deranged,  they  will  not  furnish  the 
organs  with  perfected  material,  and  the  clogged 
pores  will  no  longer  filter  their  natural  fluids. 
Every  organ  in  the  body  will  feel  this  change. 

Effect  upon  the  Blood. — From  the  stomach,  alco- 
hol passes  directly  into  the  circulation,  and  so,  in  a 
few  minutes,  is  swept  through  the  entire  system. 
If  it  be  present  in  sufficient  amount  and  strength, 
its  eager  desire  for  water  will  lead  it  to  absorb 
moisture  from  the  red  disks,  causing  them  to  shrink, 
change  their  form,  harden,  and  lose  some  of  their 
ability  to  carry  oxygen ;  it  may  even  make  them 
adhere  in  masses,  and  so  hinder  their  passage 
through  the  tiny  capillaries. — (Richardson). 

The  avidity  of  alcohol  for  water  causes  a  burning 
thirst,  familiar  to  all  drinkers,  and  hence  the  use  of 
enormous  quantities  of  liquor,  generally  beer.  This 
dilutes  the  blood,  which  then  easily  flows  from  a 
wound,  and,  as  it  does  not  coagulate  like  healthy 
blood,  renders  an  accident  or  surgical  operation 
dangerous.  ? 

Sometimes,  on  the  contrary,  when  spirits  are  used 
in  excess,  the  blood  tends  to  coagulate  in  the  capil- 
laries. There  is  then  the  liability  of  an  obstruction 
to  the  flow  of  the  vital  current  through  the  heart, 
liver,  lungs,  etc.,  that  may  cause  disease,  and  in  the 
brain  may  lay  the  foundation  of  paralysis  or  apo- 
plexy. 


88  THE  CIRCULATION. 

Wherever  the  alcoholized  blood  goes  through  the 
body,  it  bathes  the  delicate  cells  with  an  irritating, 
narcotic  poison,  instead  of  a  bland,  nutritious  sub- 
stance. 

Effect  upon  the  Lungs.— Here  we  can  see  how 
certainly  the  presence  of  alcohol  interferes  with  the 
red  disks  in  their  task  of  carrying  oxygen.  "Even 
so  small  a  quantity  as  one  part  of  alcohol  to  500  of 
the  blood  will  materially  check  the  absorption  of 
oxygen  in  the  lungs." 

The  cells,  unable  to  take  up  oxygen,  retain  their 
carbonic-acid  gas,  and  so  return  from  the  lungs, 
carrying  back,  to  poison  the  system,  the  refuse  mat- 
ter the  body  has  sought  to  throw  off.  Thus  the 
lungs  no  longer  furnish  properly-oxygenized  blood. 

The  rapid  stroke  of  the  heart,  already  spoken  of, 
is  followed  by  a  corresponding  quickening  of  the 
respiration.  The  flush  of  the  cheek  is  repeated  in 
the  reddened  mucous  membrane  lining  the  lungs. 

When  this  enlargement  of  the  capillaries  becomes 
permanent,  and  the  highly-albuminous  membrane 
of  the  air-cells  is  hardened  and  thickened  as  well 
as  congested,  the  passage  of  the  gases  to  and  fro 
through  its  pores  can  no  longer  be  prompt  and  free 
as  before.  Even  when  the  effect  passes  off  in  a 
few  days  after  the  occasional  indulgence,  there  is, 
during  that  time,  a  diminished  supply  of  the  life- 
giving  oxygen  furnished  to  the  system ;  weakness 
follows,  and,  in  the  case  of  hard  drinkers,  there  is  a 
marked  liability  to  epidemics. 

A  volume  of  statistics  could  be  filled  with  quotations  like  the  following  : 
"Mr.  Huber,  who  saw  in  one  town  in  Russia  two  thousand  one  hundred 


PRACTICAL  QUESTIONS.  89 

and  sixty  persons  perish  with  the  cholera  in  twenty  days,  said :  '  It  is  a 
most  remarkable  circumstance  that  persons  given  to  drink  have  been 
swept  away  like  flies.  In  Tiflis,  with  twenty  thousand  inhabitants,  every 
drunkard  has  fallen,— all  are  dead,  not  one  remaining.'  " 

Physicians  tell  us,  also,  that  there  is  a  peculiar 
form  of  consumption  caused  by  long-continued  and 
excessive  use  of  liquor.  It  generally  attacks  those 
whose  splendid  constitution  has  enabled  them  to 
"  drink  deep "  with  apparent  impunity.  This  type 
of  consumption  appears  late  in  life  and  is  considered 
incurable. 


PRACTICAL       QUESTIONS. 

1.  Why  does  a  dry,  cold  atmosphere  favorably  affect  catarrh  ? 

2.  Why  should  we  put  on  extra  covering  when  we  lie  down  to  sleep  ? 

3.  Is  it  well  to  throw  off  our  coats  or  shawls  when  we  come  in  heated 
from  a  long  walk  ? 

4.  Why  are  close-fitting  collars  or  neck-ties  injurious  ? 

5.  Which  side  of  the  heart  is  the  more  liable  to  inflammation  ? 

6.  When  a  fowl  is  angry,  why  does  its  comb  redden  ? 

7.  Why  does  a  fat  man  endure  cold  better  than  a  lean  one  ? 

8.  Why  does  one  become  thin  during  a  long  sickness  ? 

9.  What  would  you  do  if  you  should  come  home  "wet  to  the  skin  "  ? 

10.  When  the  cold  air  strikes  the  face,  why  does  it  first  blanch  and  then 
flush  ? 

11.  By  what  process  is  alcohol  always  formed  ?     Does  it  exist  in  nature  ? 

12.  What  per-centage  of  alcohol  is  contained  in  the  different  kinds  of 
liquor  ? 

13.  What  is  the  common  intoxicating  principle  of  whisky  and  brandy, 
as  of  beer  and  cider  ? 

14.  Describe  the  general  properties  of  alcohol. 

15.  Show  that  alcohol  is  a  narcotic  poison. 

16.  If  alcohol  is  not  a  stimulant,  how  does  it  cause  the  heart  to  over- 
work ? 


90 


THE   CIRCULATION. 


17.  Why  is  the  skin  of  a  drunkard  always  red,  and  blotched  ? 

18.  What  must  be  the  effect  of  tight  lacing  upon  the  circulation  ? 

19.  Why  does  a  hot  foot-bath  relieve  the  headache  ? 


BLACKBOARD      ANALYSIS. 


1.  THE  BLOOD 


1.  Its  Composition. 
'    Its  Uses. 
Coagulation. 


2.  ORGANS  OP  THE  CIR- 
CULATION. 


1.  The 
Heart. 


1.  Description. 

2.  Movements. 

3.  Auricles  and  Ventricles. 

(a.  Need  of. 

4.  The  Valves.  1  b' 


c.  Semi-lunar  Valves. 


3.  THE  CIRCULATION., 


4.  THE    HEAT    OF   THE 
BODY. 


2.  The    j  1.  Description. 
Arteries  "I  2.  The  Pulse. 

8.  The    j  1.  General  Description. 
Veins.  (  2.  Valves. 

4.  The    ( 1.  Description. 
Capilla--<2.  Use. 
ries.     (  3.  Under  the  Microscope. 

1.  The  Lesser. 

2.  The  Greater. 

3.  The  Velocity  of  the  Blood. 

1.  Distribution. 

2.  Regulation. 


5.  LIFE  BY  DEATH. 

6.  CHANGE  OF  OUR  BODIES. 

7.  WONDERS  or  THE  HEART. 

(I.  Description. 

8.  THE  LYMPHATIC  Cm-  J  2.  The  Glands. 

13. rf_r_  - 

Illustrations. 


)  3.  The  Lymph. 
(4.  Illustrations 

(\.  Congestion. 
|  2.  Inflammation. 

• 


9.  DISEASES  ............  •{  3.  Bleeding. 

i  4.  Scrofula. 
\J5.  A  Cold. 

.  How  Alcohol  is  formed. 
.  Manufacture  of  Beer. 
.  Spirits. 

.  Properties  of  Alcohol. 
10   ALCOHOLIC    DRINKS  \  5.  Effect  of  Alcohol  upon  the  Circulation 


AND  NARCOTICS. 


Heart. 

to  cause  fatty  degeneration, 
upon  the  Membrane. 

Blood. 
11       Lungs. 


EFFECTS  OF  ALCOHOL  UPON  THE  STOMACH. 


Healthful 


Ulcerous. 


After  a  long  Debauch 


Death  byDeliriumTremens 


The  Cancerous  Stomach. 


DIGESTION    AND    FOOD. 


"TTTHY  we  need  Food.— We  have  learned  that 

VV  our  bodies  are  constantly  giving  off  waste 
matter — the  products  of  the  fire,  or  oxidation,  as  the 
chemist  terms  it,  going  on  within  us.  A  man  with- 
out food  will  starve  to  death  in  a  few  days,  i.  e.,  the 
oxygen  will  consume  his  available  flesh.  To  replace 
the  daily  outgo,  we  need  about  two  and  a  quarter 
pounds  of  food,  and  three  pints  of  drink. 

Including  the  eight  hundred  pounds  of  oxygen 
taken  from  the  air,  a  man  uses  in  a  year  about  a  ton 
and  a  half  of  material.  Yet  during  this  entire  time 
his  weight  may  be  nearly  uniform. 

Our  bodies,  says  Huxley,  may  be  likened  to  an 
eddy  in  the  river,  which  retains  its  shape  for  a 
while,  though  every  instant  each  particle  of  water 
is  changing. 

What  Food  Does. — We  make  no  force  ourselves. 
We  can  use  only  what  nature  provides.  All  our 
strength  comes  from  the  food  we  eat.  Food  is  force — 
that  is,  it  contains  a  power  which  it  gives  up  to  us  when 
it  becomes  our  flesh.  Oxygen  is  the  magic  key 
which  unlocks  for  our  use  this  hidden  store.  Put- 
ting food  into  our  bodies  is  like  placing  a  wound-up 
spring  in  a  watch ;  every  motion  of  the  body  is 


92  DIGESTION  AND  FOOD. 

dependent  upon  the  food-force  just  as  every  move- 
ment of  the  hand  on  the  watch-dial  represents  the 
power  of  the  spring. 

Every  cell  in  the  tissues  is  full  of  matter  ready  to  set  free  at  call  its  stored- 
up  energy — derived  from  the  meat,  bread,  and  vegetables  we  have  eaten. 
This  energy  will  pass  off  quietly  when  the  organs  are  in  comparative  rest, 
but  violently  when  the  muscles  contract  with  force.  When  we  send  an 
order  through  a  nerve  to  any  part  of  the  body,  a  series  of  tiny  explosions 
run  the  entire  length  of  the  nerve,  just  as  fire  runs  through  a  train  of  gun- 
powder. The  muscle  receives  the  stimulus,  and,  contracting,  liberates  its 
energy.  The  cells  of  nerve  or  muscle,  whose  contents  have  thus  exploded, 
as  it  were,  are  useless,  and  must  be  carried  off  by  the  blood,  just  as  ashes 
must  be  swept  from  the  hearth,  and  new  fuel  be  supplied  to  keep  up  a  fire. 

Kinds  of  Food  Needed. — In  order  to  produce  heat 
and  force,  we  need  something  that  will  burn,  i.  e., 
with  which  oxygen  can  combine.  To  keep  the  body 
in  the  best  condition,  we  require  three  kinds  of  food. 

1.  FOOD  CONTAINING  NITROGEN. — This  is  needed  for 
the  growth  and  repair  of  the  muscles,  which  so 
readily  oxidize  and  provide  us  with  force.  Cheese, 
lean  meat,  and  the  whites  of  eggs  are  examples  of 
nitrogenous,  or,  as  it  is  generally  called,  albuminous 
food. 

'  2.  FOOD  CONTAINING  CARBON.— This  comprises  the 
sugars  and  the  fats.  In  digestion,  starch  (which  is 
abundant  in  potatoes,  corn,  etc.)  is  changed  to  sugar, 
and  hence  is  ranked  with  this  class  of  food. 

Experiment. — Take  a  slice  of  raw  potato,  and  let  fall  on  it  a  few 
drops  of  very  weak  tincture  of  iodine — found  at  any  drug-store.  Iodine 
turns  starch  blue.  Note  the  effect  on  the  potato,  which  shows  the  starch 
it  contains. 


OBJECT   OF  DIGESTION.  93 

3.  FOOD  CONTAINING  MINERAL  MATTER.  --  Our 
bodies  need  water,  iron,  sulphur,  magnesia,  phospho- 
rus, salt,  potash,  etc. 

About  three  pints  of  water  are  required  daily  to 
dissolve  our  food  and  carry  it  through  the  circula- 
tion, to  float  off  waste  matter,  to  lubricate  the 
tissues,  and  to  cool  the  system.  Water  also  com- 
poses a  large  share  of  the  body.  A  man  weighing 
154  pounds  contains  100  pounds  of  water,  about  12 
gallons, — enough,  if  rightly  arranged,  to  drown  him. 

Iron  goes  to  the  blood  disks ;  lime  helps  to  give 
solidity  to  the  bones  and  teeth  ;  phosphorus  is  essen- 
tial to  the  activity  of  the  brain.  Salt  assists  in  di- 
gestion, and  also  aids  in  working  off  waste  products 
from  the  system. 

One  Kind  of  Food  is  Insufficient. — A  person  fed  only 
on  sugar,  for  example,  would  die.  It  would  be  a  clear 
case  of  nitrogen  starvation.  He  might  live  some  time 
on  nitrogenous  food  alone,  as  that  contains  carbon,  the 
elements  of  water,  and  some  mineral  matter.  But 
it  would  take  such  an  enormous  quantity  of  food 
-lean  meat,  for  instance  —  to  supply  the  carbon, 
that  his  poor  stomach  would  at  last  be  sure  to  give 
up  in  despair. 

The  need  of  a  mixed  diet  is  shown  in  the  fact  that 
instinct  everywhere  suggests  it.  Butter  is  used 
with  bread ;  oil  is  relished  with  salad ;  milk  is 
boiled  with  rice ;  cheese  is  eaten  with  maccaroni, 
and  pork  is  baked  with  beans. 

Object  of  Digestion. — If  food  were  cast  directly 
into  the  blood,  it  could  not  be  used.  For  example, 
although  the  chemist  cannot  see  wherein  the  albu- 


94 


DIGESTION  AND   FOOD. 


Fig.  37. 


men  of  the  egg  differs  from  the  albumen  of  the 
blood,  yet  if  it  be  injected  into  the  veins  it  will  not 
serve  the  purposes  required,  and  is  thrown  out  again. 
Digestion  fits  the  food  for  use  in  the  body. 

General  Plan  of  Digestion. — Nature  has  provided 
for  this  purpose  an  entire  laboratory,  furnished  with 

a  chemist's  outfit  of  knives, 
mortars,  baths,  chemicals, 
filters,  etc.  The  food  is  (1) 
chewed,  mixed  with  the 
saliva  in  the  mouth,  and 
swallowed ;  (2)  acted  upon 
by  the  gastric  juice  in  the 
stomach  ;  (3)  passed  into  the 
intestines,  where  it  receives 
the  bile,  pancreatic  juice, 
and  other  liquids  which  dis- 
solve it ;  (4)  the  nourishing 
part  is  absorbed  in  the 
stomach  and  intestines,  and 
thence  thrown  into  the 
blood-vessels,  whence  it  is 
whirled  through  the  body 
by  the  circulation.  These 
processes  take  place  within 
tne  ctl'i'iYi6rYitciT'y  ccfucti^  a  nar- 
row,  winding  tube  which 
begins  at  the  mouth, 
and  is  about  thirty  feet 
long. 

I.  Mastication.—!.  THE   SALIVA.— The  food  while 
being  cut  and  ground  by  the  teeth  is  mixed  with 


The  Stomach  and   Intestines.     1, 
stomach;  2,  duodenum  •  3,  small  in- 


7,  ascending  colon  ;  8,  transverse 
colon;  9,  descending  colon;  10,  sig- 
moid  flexure  of  the  colon ;  11,  rec- 
tum ;  12,  spleen  —  a  gland  whose 
action  is  not  understood. 


Yw 

9       J 


MASTICATION. 


95 


'.  38. 


The  Parotid— one  of  the  three  salivary  glands 
that  open  into  the  month  by  ducts. 


the  saliva.  This  is 
a  colorless,  frothy, 
alkaline  liquid,  secre- 
ted (i.  e.,  separated 
from  the  blood),  by 
the  mucous  mem- 
brane lining  the 
mouth,  and  by  the 
salivary  glands.  The 
amount,  on  the  aver- 
age, is  about  three 
pounds  per  day,  and 
in  health  is  sufficient  to  keep  the  mouth  moist.  The 
saliva  changes  the  starch  of  our  food  into  sugar, 
and,  by  softening  and  dissolving  what  we  eat,  en- 
ables us  to  get  the  different  flavors. 

2.  THE  PROCESS  OF  SWALLOWING. — The  food,  thus 
pulverized,  softened,  and  lubricated  by  the  saliva,  is 
conveyed  by  the  tongue  and  cheek  to  the  back  of  the 
mouth.  The  soft  palate  lifts  to  close  the  nasal  open- 
ing ;  the  epiglottis  shuts  down,  and  along  this  bridge 
the  food  is  borne,  without  danger  of  falling  into  the 
windpipe  or  escaping  into  the  nose.  The  muscular 
bands  of  the  throat  now  seize  it  and  take  it  beyond 
our  control.  The  fibers  of  the  oesophagus  contract 
above,  while  they  are  lax  below,  and  convey  the  food 
by  a  worm-like  motion  into  the  stomach. 

Experiment. — Observe  the  peculiar  motion  of  the  oesophagus  by 
watching  a  horse's  neck  when  he  is  drinking. 

II.  Gastric  Digestion. — 1.  THE  STOMACH  is  shaped 
very  like  a  Scotch  bag-pipe,  and  holds  about  three 


96  DIGESTION  AND   FOOD. 

pints.  It  is  composed  of  three  coats,  or  layers  :  (1), 
an  inner,  soft,  mucous  membrane,  which  secretes 
the  digestive  fluids ;  (2),  an  outer,  strong,  smooth 
coat  which  prevents  friction  and  gives  support ;  and 
(3),  between  them,  a  stout  muscular  layer  composed 
of  fibers,  some  lying  lengthwise,  some  obliquely, 
and  some  passing  round  the  stomach.  When  these 
fibers  contract,  they  produce  a  peculiar  churning 
motion  which  thoroughly  mixes  the  contents  of  the 
stomach.  At  the  further  end,  the  muscular  fibers 
form  a  gateway  (pylorus,  a  gate),  which  carefully 
guards  the  exit,  to  prevent  food  from  passing  out  of 
the  stomach  until  properly  prepared. 

2.  THE  GASTRIC  JUICE. — The  inner  lining  of  the 
stomach  is  soft,  velvety,  and  of  a  pinkish  hue ;  but, 
as  soon  as  food  is  admitted,  the  blood-vessels  fill,  and 
the  surface  becomes  a  bright  red.  Soon  there  exudes 
a  thin,  colorless,  acid  fluid — the  gastric  juice.  About 
twelve  pounds  of  this  are  daily  secreted.  Its  flow  is 
checked  by  cold  water,  and  may  be  stopped  by  anger, 
fatigue,  or  anxiety. 

The  chief  value  of  the  gastric  juice  consists  in  a 
peculiar  substance  called  pepsin,  which  causes  the 
albuminous  food  to  dissolve,  but  has  no  effect  on  the 
fats  or  the  sugars. 

The  food,  reduced  by  the  gastric  juice  to  a  grayish, 
soupy  mass,  called  chyme  (klme),  escapes  through 
that  jealously-guarded  door,  the  pylorus. 

III.  Intestinal  Digestion. — The  structure  of  the 
intestines  is  like  that  of  the  stomach.  There  is  the 
same  outer,  smooth  membrane  to  prevent  friction, 
the  lining  of  mucous  membrane  to  secrete  the  diges- 


DIGESTIVE   TRACT. 

Fig.  S9. 


97 


Diagram  of  the  Digestion  of  the  Fcod.    Notice  how  the  food  is  submitted  to  the  action 
of  alkaline,  acid,  and  then  alkaline  fluids. 


98  DIGESTION  AND  FOOD. 

tive  fluids,  and  the  muscular  coating  to  push  the 

food  forward. 

The  intestines  are  divided  into  the  small,  and  the 

large.  The  first  part 
of  the  former  opens  out 
of  the  stomach,  and  is 
called  the  du-o-de'-num, 
as  its  length  is  equal  to 
the  breadth  of  twelve 
fingers.  Here  the  chyme 

A  vertical  Section  of  the  Duodenum,  highly      is    acted     Upon     by    the 

cuucief-f!fri.n^8oj  £tf&    bile,  and  the  pancreatic 


. 

gland*  ;  5,  orifice  of  duodenal  glands  ,-7,         .     . 
more  highly  magnified  sections  of  the  cells  of      JUlCe. 
a  duodenal  gland. 

1.  THE  BILE  is  secre- 

ted by  the  liver,  which  is  the  largest  gland  in  the 
body,  and  weighs  about  four  pounds.  It  is  located 
on  the  right  side,  below  the  diaphragm.  The  bile 
is  of  a  dark,  golden  color,  and  bitter  taste.  About 
three  pounds  are  daily  secreted.  When  not  needed 
for  digestion,  it  is  stored  in  the  gall  cyst. 

In  the  tiny  liver-cells  (each  one  smaller  than  a  fine  pin's  head),  sugar  is 
changed  into  a  kind  of  insoluble  starch  called  glycogen.  This  is  stored  up 
in  the  liver  and  muscles  until  'needt??!  elsewhere,  when  it  is  once  more  con- 
verted into  soluble  sugar  and  taken  up  by  the  circulation.  The  liver  also 
changes  the  waste  and  surplus  albuminous  matter  into  bile,  and  into 
urea  and  uric  acid  —  the  forms  in  which  nitrogenized  waste  is  excreted  by 
the  kidneys. 

2.  THE  PANCREATIC  JUICE  is  a  secretion  of  the 
pancreas,  or  sweet-bread  —  a  gland  nearly  as  large  as 
the  hand,  lying  behind  the  stomach.  This  alkaline 
juice,  which  has  also  the  power  of  changing  starch 
to  sugar,  breaks  the  globules  of  fat  into  minute  par- 


THE   SMALL  INTESTINES. 


99 


tides,  that  mix  freely  with  water,  and  remain  sus- 
pended in  it  like  butter  in  milk.  The  whole  mass 
now  has  a  milky  look,  whence  it  is  termed  chyle 
(kile),  and  passes  on  to  the  small  intestine. 

3.  THE  SMALL  INTESTINE  is  an  intricately-folded 
tube,  about  twenty  feet  long,  and  from  an  inch  to 
an  inch  and  one-half  in  diameter.  As  the  chyle 


The  Mucous  Membrane  of  the  Ilium,  highly  magnified.  1,  cellular  structure  of  the 
epithelium,  or  outer  layer  ;  2,  a  vein ;  3,  fibrous  layer ;  4,  villi  covered  with  epithelium ; 
5,  a  villus  in  section,  showing  its  lining  of  epithelium,  with  its  blood-vessels  and  lym- 
phatics ;  6,  a  villus  partially  uncovered ;  7,  a  villus  stripped  of  its  epithelium  ;  8, 
lymphatics,  or  lacteals ;  9,  orifices  of  the  glands  opening  between  the  vuli  ;  10,  11, 12, 
glands  ;  13,  capillaries  surrounding  the  orifices  of  the  gland. 

passes  through  this  winding  channel,    it  receives 
secretions  which  combine  the  action  of  all  the  pre- 
vious ones,  and  affect  equally  the  starch,  fat,  and 
albumen. 
IV.  Absorption  is  performed  by  the  veins,  and  the 


100  DIGESTION  AND   FOOD. 

lacteals.  (1.)  The  Veins  in  the  stomach  immediately 
begin  to  take  up  the  water,  salt,  and  other  sub- 
stances that  need  no  special  preparation.  In  the 
small  intestine,  there  is  a  multitude  of  tiny  projec- 
tions (villi)  from  the  folds  of  the  mucous  membrane, 
more  than  7000  to  the  square  inch,  giving  it  a  soft, 
velvety  look.  These  little  rootlets,  reaching  out  into 
the  milky  fluid,  drink  into  their  minute  blood-vessels 
the  nutritious  part  of  every  sort  of  food. 

(2.)  The  Lacteals,  a  set  of  vessels  starting  in  the 
villi  side  by  side  with  the  veins,  absorb  the  principal 
part  of  the  fat.  They  convey  the  chyle  through 
the  lymphatics  and  the  thoracic  duct  (Fig.  35)  to 
the  veins,  and  so  within  the  sweep  of  the  circula- 
tion. 

The  Portal  Vein  carries  to  the  liver  the  food  ab- 
sorbed by  the  veins  of  the  stomach  and  the  villi  of 
the  intestines.  In  the  cells  of  the  liver,  it  undergoes 
as  mysterious  a  process  as  that  performed  by  the 
lymphatic  glands,  and  is  then  cast  into  the  circula- 
tion. 

The  Length  of  Time  Required  for  digesting  a  full 
meal  is  from  two  to  four  hours.  It  varies  with  the 
kind  of  food,  state  of  the  system,  thoroughness  of 
mastication,  etc. 

In  1822,  Alexis  St.  Martin,  a  Canadian  in  the  employ  of  the  American 
Fur  Company,  was  accidentally  shot  in  the  left  side.  Two  years  after,  the 
wound  was  entirely  healed,  leaving,  however,  an  opening  about  two  and  a 
half  inches  in  circumference  into  the  stomach.  Through  this  the  mucous 
membrane  protruded,  forming  a  kind  of  valve  which  prevented  the  dis- 
charge of  food,  but  could  be  readily  depressed  by  the  finger,  thus  exposing 
the  interior.  For  several  years  he  was  under  the  care  of  Dr.  Beaumont,  a 


V, 

VALUE   OF  D£FF ERENT  KINDS'  OF  FOOD.  ±01 

skillful  physician,  who  exij^spjented  upon  him  by  giving  him  various  kinds 
of  food,  and  watching  their  digestion  through  this  opening.  His  stomach 
was  found  empty  in  two  and  a  half  hours  after  a  meal  of  roast  turkey, 
potatoes,  and  bread.  Pigs'  feet  and  boiled  rice  were  disposed  of  in  an  hour. 
Fresh,  sweet  apples  took  one  and  a  half  hours  ;  boiled  milk,  two  hours ; 
and  unboiled,  a  quarter  of  an  hour  longer.  In  eggs,  which  occupied  the 
same  time,  the  case  was  reversed, — raw  ones  being  digested  sooner  than 
cooked  Roast  beef  and  mutton  required  three,  and  three  and  a  quarter 
hours  respectively  ;  veal,  salt  beef,  and  broiled  chicken  remained  for  four 
hours  ;  and  roast  pork  enjoyed  the  bad  pre-eminence  of  needing  five  and  a 
quarter  hours. 

Value  of  Different  Kinds  of  Food. — BEEF  and  MUT- 
TON possess  the  greatest  nutritive  value  of  any  meats. 
LAMB  is  less  strengthening,  but  more  delicate.  PORK 
has  much  carbon.  It  sometimes  contains  a  parasite 
called  trichina,  which  passes  into  the  human  system, 
producing  disease  and  often  death  ;  the  only  safety 
is  in  thorough  cooking.  FISH  is  more  watery  than 
flesh,  and  many  find  it  difficult  of  digestion.  Like 
meat,  it  loses  its  mineral  properties  and  natural 
juices  when  salted,  and  becomes  less  nourishing. 
Oysters  are  highly  nutritious,  but  are  more  easily 
digested  raw  than  cooked.  MILK  is  a  model  food,  as 
it  contains  albumen,  starch,  fat,  and  mineral  matter. 
No  single  substance  can  sustain  life  for  so  long  a 
time.  CHEESE  is  very  nourishing — one  pound  being 
equal  in  value  to  two  of  meat,  but  it  is  not  adapted 
to  a  weak  stomach.  EGGS  are  most  easily  digested 
when  the  white  is  barely  coagulated,  and  the  yolk  is 
unchanged.  BREAD  should  be  made  of  unbolted 
flour.  The  bran  of  wheat  furnishes  the  mineral 
matter  we  need  in  our  bones  and  teeth,  gives  the 
bulk  so  essential  to  the  proper  distension  of  the 


1C#  DIGESTION  AND   FOOD. 

digestive  organs,  and  by  its  roughness  gently  stimu- 
lates them  to  action.  Very  fresh  bread,  warm  bis- 
cuit, etc.,  are  condensed  by  mastication  into  a  pasty 
mass  that  is  not  easily  penetrated  by  the  gastric 
juice,  and  hence  they  are  unwholesome.  CORN  is 
rich  in  fat.  It  contains,  however,  more  indigestible 
matter  than  any  other  grain,  except  oats,  and  is  less 
nutritious  than  wheat.  The  POTATO  is  two-thirds 
water, — the  rest  being  mainly  starch.  RIPE  FRUITS, 
and  those  vegetables  usually  eaten  raw,  dilute  the 
food,  and  supply  the  blood  with  cooling  acids. 

The  Stimulants. — COFFEE  is  about  half  nitrogen, 
and  the  rest  fatty,  sadcharme,  and  mineral  sub- 
stances. It  is,  therefore,  of  much  nutritive  value, 
especially  when  taken  with  milk  and  sugar.  Its 
stimulating  property  is  due  to  a  substance  called 
cdff&faie.  Its  aroma  is  developed  by  browning,  but 
destroyed  by  burning. 

No  other  drink  so  soon  relieves  fatigue.  Taken  in 
moderation,  it  clears  the  intellect,  tranquillizes  the 
nerves,  and  usually  leaves  no  unpleasant  reaction. 
In  some  cases,  however,  it  produces  a  rush  of  blood 
to  the  head,  and  should  be  at  once  discarded.  At  the 
close  of  a  full  meal  it  hinders  digestion,  and  at  night 
produces  wakefulness. 

TEA  possesses  an  active  principle  called  theine,  and 
also  contains  tannin,  which,  if  the  tea  is  strong, 
coagulates  the  albumen  of  the  food — tans  it — and 
thus  delays  digestion. 

Experiment. — Let  a  drop  of  strong  tea  fall  on  a  steel  knife-blade. 
The  black  spot  produced  is  a  tannate  of  iron, — a  compound  of  the  tannic 
acid  in  the  tea  and  the  metal. 


/      /*\  ' 

<&  //o    ( 

THE   COOKING   OF  FOOD.  103 

When  used  moderately,  the  effect  of  tea  resembles 
that  of  coffee  ;  in  excess,  it  causes  nervous  tremor, 
disturbed  sleep,  palpitation  of  the  heart,  and  indiges- 
tion. In  youth,  when  the  vital  powers  are  strong 
and  nature  promptly  rallies  from  fatigue,  these 
stimulants  are  needless,  and  often  positively  inju- 
rious. 

The  Cooking  of  Food  breaks  the  little  cells  and 
softens  the  fibers  of  which  it  is  composed.  In  broil- 
ing or  roasting,  meat  should  be  exposed  to  a  strong 
heat  at  once,  in  order  to  coagulate  the  albumen 
upon  the  outside,  and  thus  prevent  the  escape  of  the 
nutritious  juices.  The  cooking  may  then  be  finished 
at  a  lower  temperature.  The  same  principle  applies 
to  boiling  meat.  In  making  soups,  on  the  contrary, 
the  heat  should  be  applied  slowly,  and  should  reach 
the  boiling  point  only  for  a  few  moments  at  the  close. 
This  prevents  the  coagulation  of  the  albumen.  Fry- 
ing is  an  unwholesome  mode  of  cooking  food,  as  it 
disorganizes  the  fat. 

Rapid  Eating  produces  many  evil  results.  1.  There 
is  not  enough  saliva  mixed  with  the  food ;  2.  The 
coarse  pieces  resist  the  action  of  the  digestive  fluids  ; 
3.  The  food  is  washed  down  with  drinks  that  dilute 
the  gastric  juice,  and  hinder  its  work  ;  4.  We  do  not 
realize  how  much  we  eat  until  the  stomach  is  over- 
loaded ;  5.  Failing  to  get  the  taste  of  our  food,  we 
think  it  insipid,  and  hence  use  condiments  that  fret 
the  digestive  organs.  In  these  various  ways,  the 
stomach  is  over-worked,  and  the  foundation  of  dys- 
pepsia laid. 

The  Quantity  and  Quality  of  Food  required  vary 


104  DIGESTION  AND   FOOD. 

with  age  and  habits.  The  diet  of  a  child  should  be 
largely  vegetable,  and  more  abundant  than  that  of 
an  aged  person.  An  inactive  life  calls  for  less  food 
than  an  active  one.  When  a  boy  accustomed  to 
out-door  work  enters  school,  he  should  practice  self- 
denial  until  his  system  becomes  fitted  to  the  new 
order  of  things.  He  should  not,  however,  fall  into 
the  opposite  error,  and  starve  himself. 

The  season,  also,  should  modify  the  diet.  In  win- 
ter, we  need  highly  carbonaceous  food — plenty  of 
fat  meat,  etc. ;  but  in  summer  we  should  temper  the 
heat  in  our  corporeal  stoves  with  fruits  and  vege- 
tables. 

The  climate,  too,  has  its  necessities.  The  inhabi- 
tants of  the  frigid  north  have  an  almost  insatiable 
longing  for  fat.  Thus,  in  1812,  when  the  Allies 
entered  Paris,  the  Cossacks  drank  all  the  oil  from 
the  lamps,  and  left  the  streets  in  darkness.  In  trop- 
ical regions,  Nature  furnishes  the  proper  diet  of 
fruits. 

"SVhen  Food  should  be  Taken. — On  taking  food, 
the  blood  sets  at  once  to  the  alimentary  canal,  and 
the  energies  become  fixed  upon  digestion.  We 
should  not,  therefore,  undertake  hard  study,  labor, 
or  exercise,  directly  after  a  hearty  meal.  He  who 
toils  with  brain  or  muscle,  and  thus  centers  the 
blood  in  any  particular  organ,  before  eating  should 
allow  time  for  the  circulation  to  become  equalized. 
There  should  be  an  interval  of  four  to  five  hours  be- 
tween our  regular  meals,  and  there  should  be  no 
lunching  between  times.  With  young  children, 
where  the  vital  processes  are  more  rapid,  less  time 


THE   WONDERS   OF   DIGESTION.  105 

may  intervene.  Nothing  should  be  eaten  within  two 
or  three  hours  of  retiring. 

How  Food  should  be  Taken. — A  good  laugh  is 
the  best  of  sauces.  The  meal-time  should  be  the 
happiest  hour  of  the  day.  Care  and  grief  are  the 
bitterest  foes  of  digestion.  A  cheerful  face  and  a 
light  heart  are  friends  to  long  life,  and  nowhere  do 
they  serve  us  better  than  at  the  table. 

Need  of  a  Variety. — Experiments  show  that  no 
one  article  of  food,  however  nutritious,  will  keep  up 
the  highest  working-power  of  the  body.  Nature 
demands  change,  and  she  furnishes  the  means  to 
gratify  it.  We  should  avoid,  however,  the  other 
extreme,  and  not,  by  too  great  variety,  over-tempt 
the  appetite. 

The  Wonders  of  Digestion. — We  can  understand 
much  of  the  process  of  digestion.  We  can  look  into 
the  stomach  and  trace  its  various  steps.  Indeed,  the 
chemist  can  reproduce  in  his  laboratory  many  of  the 
operations;  "a  step  further,"  as  Fontenelle  has 
said,  "and  he  would  surprise  nature  in  the  very 
act."  Just  here,  when  he  seems  so  successful,  he  is 
compelled  to  pause.  The  secret  of  the  cell — Nature's 
tiny  laboratory — eludes  his  search. 

How  strange  is  this  change  of  food  to  flesh  !  We 
make  a  meal  of  meat,  vegetables,  and  drink. 
Ground  by  the  teeth,  mixed  by  the  stomach,  and 
dissolved  by  the  digestive  fluids,  it  is  swept  through 
the  body.  Each  organ,  as  it  passes,  snatches  its 
particular  food,  which,  within  the  cells  of  its  tissues, 
it  transforms  into  the  soft,  sensitive  brain,  or  the 
hard,  callous  bone  ;  into  briny  tears,  or  bland  saliva, 


106  DIGESTION  AND   FOOD. 

or  acrid  perspiration  ;  into  bile  for  digestion,  oil  for 
the  hair,  nails  for  the  fingers,  or  flesh  for  the  cheek. 

Diseases. — 1.  DYSPEPSIA,  or  indigestion  of  food,  is  generally  caused 
by  over-taxing  the  digestive  organs.  We  tempt  ourselves  with  luscious 
flavors  and  a  great  variety  of  dishes,  till  we  overload  the  stomach  and 
burden  the  entire  system.  We  take  meals  at  irregular  hours,  when  the 
fluids  are  not  ready.  We  force  a  hearty  supper  upon  the  body  when, 
wearied  with  the  day's  labor,  it  demands  repose.  We  devote  the  shortest 
possible  time  to  meals,  and  thrust  upon  our  stomachs  unrnasticated  lumps 
of  food,  washing  them  down  with  floods  of  ice-cold  water  or  scalding  tea. 
Nature  having  taken  away  our  appetite  in  order  to  rest  our  weak  diges- 
tion, we  forthwith  excite  it  by  stimulants  and  narcotics,  and  still  further 
oppress  the  suffering  organs.  Strong  tea,  alcoholic  drinks,  hot  bread, 
rich  pastry,  biscuit  and  cake  yellow  with  soda  or  saleratus,  meat  fried  till 
the  fat  is  disorganized  and  the  fiber  hardened,— all  these  derange  the  action 
of  the  alimentary  canal.  The  patient,  abused  stomach  struggles  on,  per- 
haps for  years,  through  discomfort,  pain,  and  the  accumulating  agonies  of 
indigestion,  till  finally  the  last  penalty  of  violated  law  is  paid,  and  the 
confirmed  dyspeptic  finds  relief  in  death. 

2.  THE  MTJMPS  are  a  swelling  of  the  parotid  gland  (one  of  the  salivary 
glands,  Fig.' 37).  The  disease  is  generally  epidemic,  and  the  patient 
should  be  carefully  secluded  for  the  sake  of  others  as  well  as  himself.  The 
swelling  may  be  allowed  to  take  its  course.  Relief  from  pain  is  often 
obtained  by  applying  flannels  wrung  out  of  hot  water.  Great  care  should 
be  used  not  to  check  the  inflammation,  and,  on  first  going  out  after 
recovery,  not  to  take  cold. 


ALCOHOLIC     DRINKS    AND    NARCOTICS. 
i.     ALCOHOL    (Continued  from  p.  89). 

Relation   of  Alcohol  to  the  Digestive    Organs.— 

Is  Alcohol  a  Food  9    To  answer  this  question,  let  us. 
make    a    comparison.      If    you    receive    into    your 


ALCOHOLIC   DRINKS,    ETC.  107 

stomach  a  piece  of  bread  or  beef,  Nature  welcomes 
its  presence.  The  juices  of  the  system  at  once  take 
hold  of  it,  dissolve  it,  and  transform  it  for  the  uses 
of  your  body.  A  million  tiny  fingers  (lacteals  and 
veins)  reach  out  to  grasp  it,  work  it  over,  and  carry  it 
into  the  circulation.  The  blood  bears  it  onward 
wherever  it  is  needed  to  mend  or  to  build  "The 
house  you  live  in."  Soon,  it  is  no  longer  bread  or 
beef  ;  it  is  flesh  on  your  arm ;  its  chemical  energy 
has  become  your  strength. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  you  take  alcohol  into  your 
stomach,  it  receives  no  such  welcome.  Nature  treats 
it  as  a  poison,  and  seeks  to  rid  herself  of  the  intruder 
as  soon  as  possible.  The  juices  of  the  system  flow 
from  every  pore  to  dilute  and  weaken  it,  and  to  pre- 
vent its  shriveling  up  the  delicate  membranes  with 
which  it  comes  in  contact.  The  veins  take  it  up 
and  bear  it  rapidly  through  the  system.  All  the 
scavengers  of  the  body — the  lungs,  the  kidneys,  the 
perspiration-glands — at  once  set  to  work  to  throw  off 
the  enemy.  So  surely  is  this  the  case,  that  the 
breath  of  a  person  who  has  drunk  only  a  single  glass 
of  the  lightest  beer  will  betray  the  fact. 

So  far  as  known,  the  alcohol  thus  rejected  is  en- 
tirely unchanged.  Nature  seems  to  have  no  use  for 
it,  so  it  courses  everywhere  through  the  circulation 
and  into  the  great  organs,  with  all  its  properties  un- 
altered. 

Alcohol,  then,  is  not,  like  bread  or  beef,  broken  up 
by  the  mysterious  process  of  digestion,  for  the  benefit 
of  the  body,  "  It  cannot  therefore  be  regarded  as  a 
food."— (Flint.)  "  That  alcohol  is  incapable  of  form- 


108 


DIGESTION  AND   FOOD. 


ing  any  part  of  the  body,  is  admitted  by  all  physiolo- 
gists. It  cannot  be  converted  into  brain,  nerve, 
muscle,  or  blood." — (Cameron.) 

Effect  upon  the  Digestion. — Alcohol  precipitates 
(causes  to  settle)  the  pepsin  of  the  gastric  juice,  and 
so  hinders  its  work  ;  it  also  coagulates  the  albumen 
of  the  food,  and  thus  still  further  obstructs  diges- 
tion. Anything  that  interferes  with  Nature's  plan 
of  getting  our  food  ready  for  our  use  must  be  inju- 
rious. The  experiments  of  Dr.  Munroe,  published  in 
the  London  Medical  Journal,  and  here  summarized, 
show  that  the  tendency  to  retard  digestion  is  com- 
mon to  alcoholic  drinks. 


Minced  Beef 
put  into 

2d  Hour. 

4th  Hour. 

6th  Hour. 

8th  Hour. 

10th  Hour. 

I. 

Gastric  juice 
and  water. 

Beef 
opaque. 

Digesting  and 
separating. 

Beef  much 
lessened. 

Broken  up 
into  shreds. 

Dissolved 
like  soup. 

n. 

Gastric  juice 
and  alcohol. 

No  alteration 
perceptible. 

Slightly 
opaque,  but 
beef 
unchanged. 

Slight  coating 
ou  beef. 

No  visible 
change. 

Solid  on 
cooling. 
Pepsin 
precipi- 
tated. 

m. 

Gastric  juice 
and  pale  ale. 

No 
change. 

Cloudy, 
with  fur  on 
beef. 

Beef  partly 
loosened. 

No  further 
change. 

No  diges- 
tion.   Pep- 
sin pre- 
cipitated 

The  greed  of  alcohol  for  water  causes  it  to  imbibe 
moisture  from  the  tissues  and  juices,  and  to  inflame 
the  delicate  mucous  membrane.  It  shows  how  pa- 
tiently nature  adapts  herself  to  circumstances,  that 
the  soft,  velvety  lining  of  the  throat  and  stomach 
should  come  at  length  to  endure  the  presence  of  a 
fiery  liquid  which,  undiluted,  would  soon  shrivel  and 


EFFECT   UPON   THE   LIVER.  109 

destroy  it.  In  self-defence,  the  juices  pour  in  to 
weaken  the  alcohol,  and  it  is  soon  hurried  into  the 
circulation.  Before  this  can  be  done,  "it  must  ab- 
sorb about  three  times  its  bulk  of  water ; "  hence, 
very  strong  liquor  may  be  retained  in  the  stomach 
long  enough  to  interfere  seriously  with  the  diges- 
tion, and  to  injure  the  lining  coat.  Habitual  use  of 
alcohol  permanently  dilates  the  blood-vessels  ;  thick- 
ens and  hardens  the  membranes  ;  in  some  cases, 
ulcerates  the  surface  ;  and,  finally,  so  weakens  the 
digestion  that  the  proper  supply  of  food  cannot  be 
appropriated. — (Flint. ) 

Effect  upon  the  Liver. — Alcohol  is  carried  by  the 
portal  vein  directly  to  the  liver.  This  organ,  after 
the  brain,  holds  the  largest  share.  The  influence  of 
the  poison  is  here  easily  traced.  "  The  color  of  the 
bile  is  soon  changed  from  yellow  to  green,  and  even 
black."  The  connective  tissue  between  the  cells 
becomes  inflamed,  and  matter  is  sometimes  depos- 
ited, causing  "fatty  degeneration,"  so  that  the  liver 
is  increased  to  twice  its  natural  size.  In  the  con- 
firmed drunkard,  the  fibrous  tissue  shrinks,  the  cells 
are  closed,  the  organ  becomes  smaller,  and  the  sur- 
face assumes  a  peculiar  appearance  known  as  the 
"  hob-nailed  liver." 

Effect  upon  the  Kidneys. — The  kidneys,  like  the 
liver,  are  liable  to  undergo,  through  the  influence  of 
alcohol,  a  "  fatty  degeneration,"  in  which  the  cells, 
becoming  filled  with  fat,  are  unable  to  separate  the 
waste  material  that  comes  to  them  to  be  thrown  off. 
This  poisonous  matter,  therefore,  is  returned  to  the 
circulation.  Worst  of  all,  the  membranes  may  be 


110  DIGESTION   AND   FOOD. 

so  affected  as  to  allow  the  albuminous  part  of  the 
blood  to  filter  through  them,  and  thus  rob  the  body  of 
one  of  its  most  valuable  constituents. 

Does  Alcohol  Impart  Heat  ?— Directly  after  drink- 
ing liquor,  a  flush  is  felt.  This  is  caused  by  the  tides 
of  warm  blood  that  are  being  sent  to  the  surface  of 
the  body,  in  consequence  of  the  enlargement  of  the 
capillaries,  and  the  rapid  pumping  of  the  heart.  No 
fresh  heat  is  developed.  On  the  contrary,  the  bring- 
ing the  blood  to  the  surface  causes  it  to  cool  faster, 
and  a  reaction  follows.  The  inebriate  becomes  chilly 
as  he  sobers,  and  a  delicate  thermometer  placed 
under  his  tongue  may  show  a  fall  of  even  two  de- 
grees below  the  standard  temperature  of  the  body. 
Several  hours  are  required  to  restore  the  usual  heat. 

Dr.  N.  S.  Davis,  of  Chicago,  instituted  an  extensive  series  of  experi- 
ments to  determine  the  effect  of  the  different  articles  of  food  and  drink  on 
the  temperature  of  the  system.  He  proved  that,  during  the  digestion  of 
all  kinds  of  food,  the  temperature  of  the  body  is  increased,  but  when  alcohol 
is  taken,  the  temperature  begins  to  fall  within  a  half-hour,  and  continues 
to  decrease  for  two  or  three  hours  ;  and  that  the  reduction  of  temperature, 
in  extent  as  well  as  in  duration,  is  in  exact  proportion  to  the  amount  of 
alcohol. 

We  see,  therefore,  that  liquor  does  not  fortify 
against  cold.  Dr.  Hayes,  the  Arctic  explorer,  says  : 
"  While  fat  is  absolutely  essential  to  life  in  Arctic 
countries,  alcohol  is  positively  injurious.  I  have 
known  strong,  able-bodied  men  to  become  utterly 
incapable  of  resisting  cold  in  consequence  of  the 
long-continued  use  of  alcoholic  drink. %> 

Does  Alcohol  Impart  Strength  ?— Experience  shows 


DOES  ALCOHOL  IMPART  STRENGTH  ?       Ill 

that  alcohol  unfits  one  for  severe  bodily  exertion. 
Men  who  are  in  training  for  running,  rowing,  and 
other  contests  where  great  strength  is  required,  deny 
themselves  all  liquors,  even  when  ordinarily  accus- 
tomed to  their  use. 

Dr.  Richardson  made  some  interesting  experiments  to  show  the  influence 
of  alcohol  upon  muscular  contraction.  He  carefully  weighted  the  hind  leg 
of  a  frog,  and,  by  means  of  electricity,  stimulating  the  muscle  to  its  utmost 
power  of  contraction,  he  found  out  how  much  the  frog  could  lift.  Then 
administering  alcohol,  he  discovered  that  the  response  of  the  muscles  to 
the  electrical  current  became  feebler  and  feebler,  as  the  narcotic  began  to 
take  effect,  until,  at  last,  the  animal  could  raise  less  than  half  the  amount 
it  lifted  by  the  natural  contraction  when  uninfluenced  by  alcohol. 

Effect  upon  the  Waste  of  the  Body. — The  ten- 
dency of  alcohol  is  to  check  the  ordinary  waste  of 
the  system,  so  that  "  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid 
exhaled  from  the  lungs  may  be  reduced  as  much  as 
30  to  50  per  cent.'' — (Hinton.)  We  have  seen  that 
when  the  functions  are.  in  full  play,  each  organ  is 
being  constantly  torn  down,  and  as  constantly  re- 
built with  materials  furnished  from  our  food.  Any- 
thing that  checks  this  oxidation  of  the  tissues,  or 
hinders  the  deposition  of  new  matter,  diminishes  the 
vital  force.  Both  these  results  are  the  certain 
effects  of  alcohol,  for,  since  the  blood  contains  less 
oxygen  and  more  carbonic  acid,  and  since  the  power 
of  digesting  food  is  decreased,  it  follows  that  every 
process  of  waste  and  repair  must  be  weakened.  The 
person  using  liquor  therefore  needs  less  bread  and 
beef,  and  so  he  wrongfully  imagines  that  alcohol  is 
a  food. 


112  DIGESTION   AND   FOOD. 

Alcohol  Creates  a  Progressive  Appetite  for  itself. 
—When  liquor  is  habitually  taken,  even  in  the  most 
moderate  quantity,  it  soon  becomes  necessary  ;  and 
then  arises  a  craving  demand  for  an  increased 
amount  to  produce  the  original  effect.  No  food 
creates  this  constantly-augmenting  want.  A  cup  of 
milk  drunk  at  dinner  does  not  lead  one  to  go  on,  day 
by  day,  drinking  more  and  more  milk,  until  to  get 
milk  becomes  the  one  great  longing  of  the  whole 
being.  Yet  this  is  the  almost  universal  effect  of 
alcohol.  Hunger  is  satisfied  by  any  nutritious  food  : 
the  dram-drinker's  thirst  demands  alcohol.  Com- 
mon observation  teaches  the  peril  that  attends  the 
formation  of  such  a  progressive  poison-habit.  A 
single  glass  taken  as  a  simple  tonic  may  lead  to  the 
drunkard's  grave. 

Worse  than  this,  the  alcoholic  craving  may  be 
transmitted  from  father  to  son.  Young  persons 
often  find  themselves  cursed  with  a  terrible  disease 
known  as  alcoholism  (dipsomania)— a  keen,  morbid, 
overwhelming  appetite  for  liquor  stamped  upon  their 
very  being  through  the  reckless  indulgences  of  some 
ancestor. 

The  Law  Of  Heredity  is,  in  this  connection,  well  worth  notice. 
"The  world  is  beginning  to  perceive,"  says  Francis  Galton,  "that  the  life 
of  each  individual  is,  in  some  real  sense,  a  continuation  of  the  lives  of  his 
ancestors.''  "  Each  of  us  is  the  footing  up  of  a  double  column  of  figures 
that  goes  back  to  the  first  pair."  "  We  are  omnibuses,"  remarks  Holmes, 
"in  which  all  our  ancestors  ride."  We  inherit  from  our  parents  our 
features,  our  physical  vigor,  our  mental  faculties,  and  even  much  of  our  moral 
character.  Often,  when  one  generation  is  skipped,  the  qualities  will  reappear 
in  the  following  one.  The  virtues,  as  well  as  the  vices,  of  our  forefathers, 
have  added  to,  or  subtracted  from,  the  strength  of  our  brain  and  muscle. 


PRACTICAL  QUESTIONS.  113 

The  evil  tendencies  of  our  natures,  which  it  is  the  struggle  of  our  lives  to 
resist,  constitute  a  part  of  our  heir-looms  from  the  past.  Our  descend- 
ants, in  turn,  will  have  reason  to  bless  us  only  if  we  hand  down  to  them 
a  pure  and  healthy  physical,  mental,  and  moral  being. 

"There  is  a  marked  tendency  in  nature  to  transmit  all  diseased  condi- 
tions. Thus,  the  children  of  consumptive  parents  are  apt  to  be  con- 
sumptives. But  of  all  agents,  alcohol  is  the  most  potent  in  establishing 
a  heredity  that  exhibits  itself  in  the  destruction  of  mind  and  body.  Its 
malign  influence  was  observed  by  the  ancients  long  before  the  production 
of  whisky,  or  brandy,  or  other  distilled  liquors,  and  when  fermented 
liquors  or  wines  only  were  known.  Aristotle  says,  '  Drunken  women 
have  children  like  unto  themselves,'  and  Plutarch  remarks,  'One  drunk- 
ard is  the  father  of  another.'  The  drunkard  by  inheritance  is  a  more 
helpless  slave  than  his  progenitor,  and  his  children  are  more  helpless  still, 
unless  on  the  mother's  side  there  is  an  untainted  blood.  For  there  is  not 
only  a  propensity  transmitted,  but  an  actual  disease  of  the  nervous  system. " 
— (Dr.  Willard  Parker. ) 


PRACTICAL     QUESTIONS. 

1.  How  do  clothing  and  shelter  economize  food  ? 

2.  Is  it  well  to  take  a  long  walk  before  breakfast  ? 

3.  Why  is  warm  food  easier  to  digest  than  cold  ? 

4.  Why  is  salt  beef  less  nutritious  than  fresh  ? 

5.  What  should  be  the  food  of  a  man  recovering  from  a  fever? 

6.  Is  a  cup  of  black  coffee  a  healthful  close  to  a  hearty  dinner  ? 

7.  Should  ice-water  be  used  at  a  meal  ? 

8.  Why  is  strong  tea  or  coffee  injurious  ? 

9.  Should  food  or  drink  be  taken  hot  ? 

10.  Are  fruit-cakes,  rich  pastry,  and  puddings  wholesome  ? 

11.  Why  are  warm  biscuit  and  bread  hard  of  digestion? 

12.  Should  any  stimulants  be  used  in  youth  ? 

13.  Why  should  bread  be  made  spongy  ? 

14.  Which  should  remain  longer  in  the  mouth,  bread  or  meat  ? 

15.  Why  should  cold  water  be  used  in  making  soup,  and  hot  water  in 
boiling  meat  ? 

16.  Name  the  injurious  effects  of  over-eating. 

17.  Why  do  not  buckwheat  cakes,  with  syrup  and  butter,  taste  as  well 
in  July  as  in  January  ? 


114 


DIGESTION  AND   FOOD. 


18.  Why  is  a  late  supper  injurious  ? 

19.  What  makes  a  man  "  bilious  "  ? 

20.  What  is  the  best  remedy  ?     Ans.  Diet  to  give  the  organs  rest,  and 
active  exercise  to  arouse  the  secretions  and  the  circulation. 


BLACKBOARD      ANALYSIS. 


1.  WHY  WE  NEED  FOOD. 

2.  WHAT  FOOD  DOES. 


3.  KINDS  OF  FOOD 

4.  ONE  KIND  is  INSUFFICIENT 


(  1. 
.......  •{  2. 

\  3. 


Nitrogenous. 

Carbonaceous 

Minerals 


5.  OBJECT  OF  DIGESTION. 


6.  PROCESS  or  DIGESTION 


—  General  Plan. 

1.  Mastication.     .  .  . 

2.  Gastric  Digestion . . 

3.  Intestinal  Digestion 
4  Absorption 


a   The  Sugars. 
b.  The  Fats. 


j  a.  The  Saliva. 

\  b.  Process  of  Swallowing. 

a.  The  Stomach 

b.  The  Gastric  Juice, 
c  The  Chyme. 

—  Description. 

a.  The  Bile. 

b.  The  Pancreatic  Juice. 

c.  The  Small  Intestine. 


7.  HYGIENE. 


f  1.  Length  of  Time  required 

2.  Value  of  different  kinds  of  Food. 

3.  The  Stimulants.       \  *•  Coffee. 

1  D.  iea. 

4.  Cooking  of  Food. 

5.  Rapid  Eating. 

6.  Quantity  and  Quality  of  Food. 

7.  When  Food  should  be  taken. 

8.  How       "         "       "      " 

9.  Need  of  a  Variety. 


8.  THE  WONDERS  OF  DIGESTION. 


9.  DISEASES.  . . 


10.  ALCOHOLIC  DRINKS  o 
AND  NARCOTICS.        ~  "* 


1.  Dyspepsia. 

2.  The  Mumps. 

1.  Is  Alcohol  a  Food  ? 

2.  Effect  upon  the  Digestion. 

4.  "         "        "   Kidney^. 

5.  Does  Alcohol  impart  Heat  ? 

6.  "  "  "         Strength? 

7.  The  Effect  upon  the  Waste  of  the  Itody. 

8.  Alcohol  creates  a  progressive  appetite  for  itself. 

9.  The  Law  of  Heredity. 


THE    NERVOUS   SYSTEM 


STRUCTURE.— The  nervous  system  includes  the 
brain,  the  spinal  cord,  and  the  nerves.  It  is 
composed  of  two  kinds  of  matter — the  white,  and  the 
gray.  The  former  consists  of  milk-white,  glistening 
fibers,  sometimes  as  small  as  ^T^TF  of  an  inch  in 
diameter ;  the  latter  is  a  jelly-like  substance,  made 
up  of  small,  ash-colored  cells.  This  often  gathers  in 
little  masses,  termed  ganglions  (ganglion,  a  knot), 
because  when  a  nerve  passes  through  a  group  of  the 
cells,  they  give  it  the  appearance  of  a  knot.  The 
gray  cells  produce  the  nervous  force,  and  the  nerve 
fibers  conduct  it.  The  ganglia  answer  to  the  stations 
along  a  telegraphic  line,  where  messages  are  received 
and  forwarded  ;  the  fibers  correspond  to  the  wires. 

The  Brain  is  the  seat  of  the  mind.  Its  average 
weight  is  about  fifty  ounces.0  fegg-shaped  and  yield- 
ing, it  fills  closely  the  cavity  of  the  skull.  It  rests 
on  a  water-bed,  being  surrounded  by  a  double  mem- 
brane, delicate  as  a  spider's  web,  which  forms  a  sac 
filled  with  a  liquid  resembling  water.  Within  this, 
closely  wrapping  the  brain,  is  a  fine  tissue  (pia 
mater),  with  a  mesh  of  blood-vessels  which  dips 
down  into  the  hollows,  and  bathes  them  so  copiously 


116 


THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 

Fig.  It's. 


The  Nervous  Syste -n.    A,  cer^rum  ;  B,  ctt , bMuin . 


THE  CEREBRUM. 


117 


that  it  uses  one-fifth  of  all  the  blood  in  the  body. 
Around  the  whole  is  wrapped  a  tough  membrane 
(dura  mater),  which  lines  the" bony  box  of  the  skull, 
and  separates  the  various  parts  of  the  organ  by 
strong  partitions.  The  brain  consists  of  two  parts — 
the  cerebrum,  and  the  cerebellum. 

The  Cerebrum  fills  the  front  and  upper  part  of  the 
skull,  and  comprises  about  seven-eighths  of  the  en- 
tire weight  of  the  brain.  It  is  divided  into  two 

Fig.  It3. 


Surface  of  the  Cerebrum. 

hemispheres,  connected  beneath  by  fibers  of  white 
matter.  Thus  we  have  two  brains,  as  well  as  two 
hands  and  two  eyes.  As  animals  rise  in  the  scale  of 
life,  this  higher  part  makes  its  appearance.  It  is  a 
mass  of  white  fibers,  with  cells  of  gray  matter 


118 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


sprinkled  on  the  outside,  or  lodged  here  and  there 
in  ganglia.  It  is  curiously  wrinkled  and  folded,  much 
like  the  meat  of  an  English  walnut.  This  structure 
gives  a  large  surface  for  the  gray  matter.  The 
wrinkles,  which  are  very  slight  in  infancy,  increase 
in  size  and  number  according  to  the  mental  growth 
and  ability  of  each  individual. 
The  cerebrum  is  the  center  of  intelligence  and 


Fin. 


Pigeon  from  which  the  Cerebrum  has  been  removed. 

thought.  Pigeons  from  which  it  is  removed  fall  into 
a  profound  stupor,  occasionally  opening  their  eyes 
with  a  vacant  stare,  and  then  relapsing  into  apathy. 
The  Cerebellum  lies  below  the  cerebrum,  and  in 
the  back  part  of  the  head  (Fig.  42).  It  is  about  the 
size  of  a  small  fist.  Its  structure  resembles  that  of 
the  brain  proper,  but  instead  of  wrinkles  it  has  par- 
allel ridges,  which,  letting  the  gray  matter  down 
deeply  into  the  white  matter  within,  give  it  a  peculiar 
appearance,  called  the  arbor-vitce,  or  tree  of  life 


THE  SPINAL  COED.  119 

(Fig.  47).     This  part  of  the  brain  controls  the  volun- 
tary muscles.      Pigeons  from  which  it  is  removed 


Fig. 


Pigeon  from  which  the  Cerebellum  has  been  remoced. 

are  excited,  nervous,  and  try  to  escape  with  uncer- 
tain, sprawling  movements. 

The  Spinal  Cord  occupies  the  cavity  of  the  back- 
bone. It  is  protected  by  the  same  membranes  as  the 
brain,  but,  unlike  it,  the  white  matter  is  on  the 
outside,  and  the  gray  matter  is  within.  Deep  fis- 
sures separate  it  into  halves  (Fig.  42),  joined  by  a 
bridge  of  the  same  substance.  Just  as  it  starts  from 
the  brain,  there  is  an  expansion  called  the  medulla 
oblongata  (Fig.  47). 

The  Nerves  are  glistening,  silvery  threads,  com- 
posed, like  the  spinal  cord,  of  white  matter  without 
and  gray  within.  They  go  to  all  parts  of  the  body, 
and  though  often  very  near  each  other,  yet  are  per- 
fectly distinct,  each  conveying  its  own  impression. 


120  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

Experiment.— Press  two  fingers  together,  and,  closing  the  eyes,  let 
some  one  pass  the  point  of  a  pin  lightly  from  one  to  the  other  ;  you  will  be 
able  to  tell  which  is  touched,  yet  if  the  nerves  came  in  contact  with  each 
other  anywhere  in  their  long  route  to  the  brain,  you  could  not  thus  distin- 
guish. 

Those  nerves  which  carry  the  orders  of  the  mind 
to  the  different  organs  are  called  the  motory  nerves  ; 
those  which  bring  back  information  are  styled  sen- 
sory nerves.  If  the  sensory  nerve  leading  to  any  part 
be  cut,  all  sensation  in  that  spot  will  be  lost,  while 
motion  will  remain ;  if  the  motory  nerve  be  cut,  all 
motion  will  be  destroyed,  while  sensation  will  exist. 

Transfer  of  Pain. — Strictly  speaking,  pain  is  not  in 
any  organ,  but  in  the  mind,  since  only  that  can  feel. 
When  any  nerve  brings  to  the  brain  news  of  an  in- 
jury, the  mind  locates  the  pain  at  the  end  of  the 
nerve.  A  familiar  illustration  is  seen  in  the  "funny 
bone"  behind  the  elbow.  Here  the  nerve  (ulnar) 
gives  sensation  to  the  third  and  fourth  fingers,  in 
which,  if  this  bone  be  struck,  the  pain  will  seem  to  be. 
Long  after  a  limb  has  been  amputated,  it  will  still 
seem  to  give  pain, — any  injury  in  the  stump  being 
referred  to  the  point  to  which  the  nerve  formerly  led. 

The  nerves  are  divided  into  three  general  classes — 
the  spinal,  the  cranial,  and  the  sympathetic. 

The  Spinal  Nerves,  of  which  there  are  thirty-one 
pairs,  issue  from  the  spinal  cord  through  openings 
provided  for  them  in  the  backbone.  Each  nerve 
arises  by  two  roots — the  motory,  and  the  sensory. 
These  roots  are  soon  bound  together  in  one  sheath, 
though  they  retain  their  special  functions.  When 
the  sensory  root  of  a  spinal  nerve  is  cut,  the  animal 


THE   SPINAL  NERVES.  121 

loses  the  power  of  feeling,  and  when  the  motory  root 
is  cut,  that  of  motion. 

Fig.  W. 


A,  posterior  (sensory)  root  of  a  spinal  nerve  ;  E,  gang/.ioii ;  B,  anterior  (motory 
root ;  D,  spinal  nerve.  The  white  portions  of  the  figure  represent  the  white  fibers ;  and 
the  dark,  the  gray. 

The  Cranial  Nerves,  twelve  pairs  in  number, 
spring  from  the  lower  part  of  the  brain  and  the 
medulla  oblongata.  (See  Fig.  47.) 

1.  The  olfactory,  or  first  pair  of  nerves,   ramify  through  the  nostrils, 
and  are  the  nerves  of  smell. 

2.  The   optic,  or  second  pair  of  nerves,  pass  to  the   eyeballs,  and  are 
the  nerves  of  vision. 

3.  4,  6.  The  motores  oculi  (eye-movers)  are  three  pairs  of  nerves  used 
to  move  the  eyes. 

5.  The  tri-f octal,  or  fifth  pair  of  nerves,  divide  each  into  three  branches 
— hence  the  name  :  the  first  to  the  upper  part  of  the  face,  eyes,  and  nose  ; 
the  second  to  the  upper  jaw  and  teeth  ;  the  third  to  the  lower  jaw  and  the 
mouth,  where  it  forms  the  nerve  of  taste.  These  nerves  are  implicated 
when  we  have  the  toothache  or  neuralgia. 

7.  The  facial,  or  seventh  pair  of  nerves,  are  distributed  over  the  face, 
and  give  it  expression. 

8.  The  auditory,   or  eighth  pair  of  nerves,  go  to  the  ears,  and  are  the 
nerves  of  hearing. 

9.  The   glos-so-pha-ryn1 -ge-al,  or  ninth  pair  of  nerves,   are  distributed 
over  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  pharynx,  tonsils,  etc. 

10.  The  pncu-mo-gas' -trie,  or   tenth   pair   of  nerves,    preside   over   the 
larynx,  lungs,  and  stomach,  one  branch  extending  to  the  heart.     This  is 
the  only  nerve  that  goes  so  far  from  the  head. 

11.  The  accessory,  or  eleventh  pair  of  nerves,   regulate  the  vocal  move- 
ments of  the  larynx. 

12.  The  hyp-o-glos' -sal,  or  twelfth  pair  of  nerves,  give   motion  to  the 
tongue. 

The  Sympathetic  System  contains  the  nerves  of 
organic  life.  It  consists  of  a  double  chain  of  ganglia 


122 


THE  NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 


on  either  side  of  the  backbone,  extending  into  the 
chest  and  abdomen.      From  these,  delicate  nerves 


Fin   1,7. 


The  Brain  and  the  origin  of  the  twelve  pairs  of  Cranial  Nerves.  F,  E,  the  Cere- 
brum ;  D,  the  cerebellum,  showing  the  arbor-vitce ;  G,  the  eye ;  H,  the  medulla  ob- 
longata;  A,  the  spinal  cord  ;  C  and  B,  the  first  two  pairs  of  spinal  nerves. 

run  to  the  organs  on  which  life  depends — the  heart, 
lungs,  stomach,  etc.,  to  the  blood-vessels,  and  to  the 
spinal  and  cranial  nerves  over  the  body.  Thus  the 
entire  system  is  bound  together  by  cords  of  sym- 
pathy, so  that,  "  if  one  member  suffers,  all  the  mem- 
bers suffer  with  it." 

Crossing  of  Cords.— Each  half  of  the  body  is  pre- 
sided over,  not  by  its  own  half  of  the  brain,  but  that 
of  the  opposite  side.  (1)  The  motory  nerves,  as  they 
descend  from  the  brain,  in  the  medulla  oblongata 
cross  each  other  and  pass  to  the  opposite  side  of  the 
spinal  cord.  So  the  motor-nerves  of  the  right  side 


REFLEX   ACTION. 


123 


of  the  body  are  connected  with  t-he  left  side  of  the 
brain,  and  vice  versa.     Thus  a  derangement  in  one 


Spinal  Nerves,  Sympathetic  Cord,  and  the  Net-work  of  Sympathetic  Nerves  around 
the  Internal  Organs.    K,  aorta ;  A,  cesophagus ;  B,  diaphragm  :  C,  stomach. 

half  of  the  brain  paralyzes  the  opposite  half  of  the 
body.  (2)  Each  of  the  sensory  fibers  of  the  spinal 
nerves  crosses  over  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  spinal 
cord,  and  so  ascends  to  the  brain. 

An  injury  to  the  spinal  cord  may,  therefore,  cause 
a  loss  of  motion  in  one  leg  and  of  feeling  in  tho 
other. 

Reflex  Action.  —  We  have  seen  that  nervous 
force  arises  in  the  gray  matter.  A  ganglion,  there- 
fore, can  not  only  receive  an  impression,  but  can 


124  THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 

also  send  it  back,  i.  e.,  reflect  it,  so  as  to  excite  the 
muscles  to  action.  This  is  done  without  reference  to 
the  mind.  We  wink  involuntarily  at  a  flash  of  light 
or  a  threatened  blow  ;  we  start  at  a  sudden  sound  ; 
we  jump  back  from  a  precipice  before  the  mind  has 
time  to  reason  upon  the  danger.  Thus,  the  spinal 
cord  conducts  certain  impressions  to  the  brain,  but 
responds  to  others  without  troubling  that  organ. 

Uses  of  Reflex  Action. — We  breathe  eighteen 
times  every  minute;  we  stand,  walk,  eat,  digest, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  carry  on  a  train  of  thought,— 
all  without  a  consciousness  of  effort.  Our  brain  is 
thus  freed  from  the  petty  detail  of  life.  If  we  were 
obliged  to  attend  to  every  breath,  every  pulsation  of 
the  heart,  every  wink  of  the  eye,  our  time  would  be 
wasted  in  keeping  alive.  Besides,  an  act  which  at 
first  is  difficult,  soon  grows  easy,  and,  at  last,  be- 
comes mechanical,  i.  e.,  reflex.  All  the  possibilities 
of  education  and  the  power  of  forming  habits  are 
based  upon  this  principle.  No  act  we  perform  ends 
with  itself.  It  leaves  behind  it  in  the  nervous  cen- 
ters a  tendency  to  do  the  same  thing  again.  Our 
physical  being  thus  fixes  upon  us  the  habits  of  a 
good  or  an  evil  life.  Our  very  thoughts,  even,  are 
written  in  our  muscles,  so  that  not  only  the  expres- 
sion of  our  face,  but  our  features  themselves  betray 
our  hidden  life.  Nature  is  intent  upon  hanging  out 
sign-boards  to  show  what  kind  of  a  person  ;we  are. ' 

Brain  Exercise.— The  nervous  system  demands 
activity.  The  mind  grows  by  what  it  feeds  on. 
Hence,  the  girl  who  lolls  on  the  sofa,  reading  roman- 
tic novels,  or  who  devotes  her  life  to  fashionable 


SLEEP.  125 

follies,  will  physically  and  mentally  weaken  ;  while 
the  boy  who  idles  about  the  streets,  smoking  cigar- 
ettes, and  who  reads  only  tales  of  crime  and  adven- 
ture, may  be  equally  sure  of  mental  poverty  and 
bodily  weakness.  On  the  other  hand,  excessive 
study  exhausts  the  vital  force,  and  the  weakened 
body,  reacting  on  the  brain,  produces  gradual  decay 
and  serious  disease. 

Sleep  is  as  essential  as  food.  During  the  day,  the 
process  of  tearing-down  goes  on ;  during  the  night, 
the  work  of  building-up  should  make  good  the  loss. 
In  youth  more  sleep  is  needed  than  in  old  age.  The 
number  of  hours  required  must  be  decided  by  each 
person  ;  Napoleon  took  only  five  hours,  but  most 
people  need  from  six  to  eight  hours, — brain-workers 
even  more.  In  general,  one  should  sleep  until  he 
naturally  wakes. 

Sleep  produced  by  medicine  is  rarely  as  beneficial  as  natural  sleep,  for  the 
disturbance  to  the  nervous  system  often  counterbalances  the  good  results 
of  slumber.  The  habit  of  acquiring  sleep  in  this  way,  without  the  advice 
of  a  physician,  is  extremely  dangerous,  as  the  dose  must  be  constantly  in- 
creased to  cause  the  effect ;  where  laudanum  or  morphine  is  used,  the 
person  often  falls,  unawares,  into  a  terrible  and  fatal  bondage.  Infants, 
especially,  should  never  be  dosed  with  cordials.  Frightful  injury  is  heaped 
on  helpless  childhood  by  the  reckless  use  of  soothing- syrups.  All  ordinary 
sleeping-draughts  have  life-destroying  properties,  as  is  proved  by  the  fatal 
effects  of  an  overdose.  At  the  best,  they  paralyze  the  nerve  centers,  dis- 
order the  digestion,  and  poison  the  blood. 

Sunlight  has  a  marked  effect  upon  the  nervous 
system.  All  vigor  and  activity  come  from  the  sun. 
Vegetables  grown  in  subdued  light  have  a  bleached 
and  faded  look.  An  infant  kept  in  absolute  dark- 


126  THE   NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 

ness  would  grow  into  a  shapeless  idiot.  That  room 
is  the  healthiest  to  which  the  sun  has  the  freest 
access.  Epidemics  frequently  attack  the  inhabitants 
of  the  shady  side  of  a  street,  and  totally  exempt 
those  on  the  sunny  side.  If,  on  a  slight  indisposi- 
tion, we  should  go  out  into  the  open  air  and  bright 
sunlight,  instead  of  shutting  ourselves  up  in  a  close, 
dark  chamber,  we  might  often  avoid  a  serious  ill- 
ness. The  sun-bath  is  an  efficient  remedy  for  many 
diseases.  Our  window  blinds  and  curtains  should  be 
thrown  open,  and  we  should  let  the  blessed  air  and 
sun  stream  in  to  invigorate  and  cheer.  No  house 
buried  in  shade,  and  no  room  with  darkened  win- 
dows, is  fit  for  human  habitation.  In  damp  and 
darkness,  lies  in  wait  almost  every  disease  to  which 
flesh  is  heir.  The  sun  is  their  only  successful  foe. 

Wonders  of  the  Brain. — After  having  seen  the 
beautiful  contrivances  and  the  exquisite  delicacy  of 
the  lower  organs,  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  when 
we  come  to  the  brain  we  should  find  the  most  elabo- 
rate machinery.  How  surprising,  then,  it  is  to  have 
revealed  to  us  only  cells  and  fibers  !  The  brain  is 
the  least  solid  and  most  unsubstantial  looking  organ 
in  the  body.  Eighty  per  cent,  of  water,  seven  of 
albumen,  some  fat,  and  a  few  minor  substances 
make  up  the  instrument  which  rules  the  world. 
Strangest  of  all,  the  brain,  which  is  the  seat  of 
sensation,  is  itself  without  sensation.  Every  nerve, 
every  part  of  the  spinal  cord,  is  keenly  alive  to  the 
slightest  touch,  yet  "the  brain  may  be  cut,  burned, 
or  electrified  without  producing  pain." 


ALCOHOLIC   DRINKS  AND  NARCOTICS.  12? 

ALCOHOLIC    DRINKS    AND    NARCOTICS. 

ALCOHOL   (Continued  from  p.  113). 

Effect  upon  the  Nervous  System. — When  a  person 
takes  alcohol  into  his  stomach,  its  influence  upon  the 
nervous  system  is  marked  by  four  successive  stages. 

1.  THE  STAGE  OF  EXCITEMENT. — The  first  effect,  as 
we  have  already  seen,  is  to  paralyze  the  nerves  that 
regulate  the  passage  of  the  blood  through  the  capil- 
laries. The  vital  force,  thus  drawn  into  the  nervous 
centers,  drives  the  machinery  of  life  with  tremendous 
energy.  The  blood  surges  through  the  body  with 
increased  violence.  Every  capillary  tube  in  the  sys- 
tem is  swollen  and  flushed,  like  the  reddened  nose 
and  cheek. 

In  all  this  there  is  excitement,  but  no  nourishment, 
no  permanent  power  conferred  on  brain  or  muscle. 
Alcohol  may  cheer  for  the  moment.  It  may  set  the 
sluggish  blood  in  motion,  start  the  flow  of  thought, 
and  excite  a  temporary  gayety.  "  It  may  enable  a 
wearied  or  feeble  organ  to  do  brisk  work  for  a 
short  time.  It  may  make  the  brain  briefly  brilliant. 
It  may  excite  muscle  to  quick  action,  but  it  does 
nothing  at  its  own  cost,  fills  up  nothing  it  has  de- 
stroyed, and  itself  leads  to  destruction."  Even  the 
mental  activity  it  excites  is  an  unsafe  state  of  mind, 
for  that  even  balance  of  the  faculties  so  essential  to 
good  judgment  is  disturbed  by  the  presence  of  the 
intruder.  Johnson  well  remarked,  "Wine  improves 
conversation  by  taking  the  edge  off  the  understand- 
ing." 


128  THE  NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 

2.  THE  STAGE  OF  MUSCULAR  WEAKNESS. — If  the  ac- 
tion of  the  alcohol  be  still  continued,  the  spinal  cord 
is  next  affected  by  this  powerful  narcotic.     The  con- 
trol of  some  of  the  muscles  is  lost.     Those  of  the 
lower  lip  usually  fail  first,  then  those  of  the  lower 
limbs,  and  the  staggering,  uncertain  steps  betray  the 
result.   The  muscles  themselves,  also,  become  feebler 
as  the  power  of  contraction  diminishes.     The  tem- 
perature, which,  for  a  time,  was  slightly  increased, 
soon  begins  to  fall  as  the  heat  is  radiated  ;  the  body 
is  cooled,  and  the  well-known  "alcoholic  chill"  is 
felt. 

3.  THE  STAGE  OF  MENTAL  WEAKNESS. — The  cere- 
brum is  now  affected.     The  ideal  and  emotional  fac- 
ulties are  quickened,  while  the  will  is  weakened. 
The  center  of  thought  being  overpowered,  the  mind 
is  a  chaos.   Ideas  flock  in  thick  and  fast.   The  tongue 
is  loosened.   The  judgment  loses  its  hold  on  the  acts. 
The  reason  giving  way,  the  animal  instincts  gener- 
ally assume  the  mastery  of  the  man.     The  hidden 
nature  comes  to  the  surface.    All  the  gloss  of  educa- 
tion and  social  restraint  falls  off,   and  the  lower 
nature  stands  revealed.     The  coward  shows  himself 
more  craven,  the  braggart  more  boastful,  the  bold 
more  daring,  and  the  cruel  more  brutal.    The  inebri- 
ate is  liable  to  commit  any  outrage  that  the  slightest 
provocation  may  suggest. 

4.  THE    STAGE    OF    UNCONSCIOUSNESS.  —  At  last, 
prostration  ensues,  and  the  wild,  mad  revel  of  the 
drunkard  ends  with  utter  senselessness.    In  common 
speech,  the  man  is  "  dead  drunk."    Brain  and  spinal 
cord  are  both  benumbed.    Fortunately,  the  two  nerv- 


EFFECT   UPON   THE  BRAIN.  129 

ous  centers  which  supply  the  heart  and  the  dia- 
phragm are  the  slowest  to  be  influenced.  So,  even 
in  this  final  stage,  the  breathing  and  the  circulation 
still  go  on,  though  the  other  organs  have  stopped. 
Were  it  not  for  this,  every  person  thoroughly  intoxi- 
cated would  die. — (Richardson.) 

Effect  upon  the  Brain. — Alcohol  seems  to  have  a 
special  affinity  for  the  brain.  This  organ  absorbs 
more  than  any  other,  and  its  delicate  structure  is 
correspondingly  affected.  The  congestion  here 
reaches  its  height.  The  tiny  vessels  become  clogged 
with  blood  that  is  loaded  with  carbonic  acid,  and 
scantily  supplied  with  the  life-giving  oxygen. — (Hin- 
ton.)  The  mind  slowly  rallies  from  the  stupor  of  the 
fourth  stage,  and  a  lingering  sense  of  dullness  and 
depression  shows  with  what  difficulty  the  fatigued 
brain  recovers  its  usual  condition.  So  marked  is 
the  effect  of  the  narcotic  poison  that  some  authorities 
hold  that  "  a  once  thoroughly-intoxicated  brain 
never  fully  becomes  what  it  was  before." 

The  deadening  of  the  nerves,  which  occurs  even 
in  the  first  stage,  is  full  of  peril.  Pain  is  said  to  be 
"  the  cry  of  the  body  for  healthy  blood."  Whenever 
anything  goes  amiss  in  any  part  of  the  system,  a 
despatch  is  sent  at  once  to  the  brain,  and  we  feel 
uneasy,  often  miserable,  till  the  cause  is  removed. 
Alcohol  deadens  this  "  physical  conscience,"  and  its 
unfortunate  victim  goes  on  ruining  his  health  with- 
out knowing  it. 

In  time,  the  free  use  of  liquor  hardens  and  thickens 
the  membranes  which  envelop  the  nervous  matter ; 
the  nerve-cells  undergo  a  "  fatty  degeneration" ;  the 


130  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

blood-vessels,  from  long  congestion,  lose  their  elastici- 
ty; and  the  vital  fluid,  flowing  less  freely  through  the 
obstructed  channels,  fails  to  afford  the  old-time  nour- 
ishment. The  consequent  decay  of  the  nervous  sub- 
stance shows  itself  in  the  weakened  mind  we  so 
often  notice  in  a  person  accustomed  to  drink,  and  at 
last  results  in  various  nervous  disorders — epilepsy, 
paralysis,  and  insanity.  The  law  of  heredity  here 
asserts  itself  again,  and  the  inebriate's  children  often 
inherit  the  disease  which  he  has  escaped. 

Chief  among  the  consequences  of  this  imperfect 
nutrition  of  the  brain  is  that  state  between  intoxica- 
tion and  insanity,  known  as  Delirium  Tremens. 
"  It  is  marked  by  a  restless  activity  of  the  cerebrum, 
manifesting  itself  in  muttering  delirium,  with  occa- 
sional violent  paroxysms.  The  victim  apprehends 
some  direful  calamity ;  he  imagines  his  bed  to  be 
covered  with  loathsome  reptiles  ;  he  sees  the  walls 
of  his  apartment  crowded  with  foul  specters ;  and 
he  imagines  his  friends  and  attendants  to  be  fiends 
come  to  drag  him  down  to  a  fiery  abyss  beneath. "- 
(Carpenter.) 

Influence  upon  the  Mental  and  Moral  Powers.— 
The  effect  of  alcoholized  blood  is  to  weaken  the  will. 
The  one  habitually  under  its  influence  often  shocks 
us  by  his  indecision  and  broken  promises  of  reform. 
The  truth  is,  he  has  lost,  in  a  measure,  his  power  of 
self-control.  At  last,  he  becomes  physically  unable 
to  resist  the  craving  demand  of  his  morbid  appetite. 

Other  faculties  share  in  this  mental  wreck.  The 
intellectual  vision  becomes  less  penetrating,  the 
grasp  of  thought  is  less  vigorous,  and  the  decisions 


ALCOHOL.  131 

of  the  mind  are  less  reliable.  A  thriftless,  reckless 
feeling  is  developed,  and  all  self-respect  is  lost. 

Along  with  this  mental  degradation  comes  also  a 
failure  of  the  moral  sense.  The  fine  fiber  of  charac- 
ter undergoes  a  "degeneration"  as  certain  as  that 
of  the  muscles  themselves.  The  broken  promises 
tell  of  a  lowered  standard  of  truth  and  a  dulled  sense 
of  honor,  quite  as  much  as  of  an  impaired  will. 
Conscience  is  lulled  to  rest.  Reason  is  enfeebled. 
Customary  restraints  are  thrown  off.  The  sensibili- 
ties are  blunted.  There  is  less  ability  to  appreciate 
nice  shades  of  right  and  wrong.  Great  moral  prin- 
ciples and  motives  lose  their  power  to  influence.  The 
better  nature  has  been  dethroned. 

The  wretched  victim  of  appetite  will  now  gratify 
his  passion  for  drink  at  any  expense  of  deceit  or 
crime.  He  becomes  the  blind  instrument  of  his 
insane  impulses,  and  commits  acts  from  which  he 
would  once  have  shrunk  with  horror.  Sometimes  he 
even  takes  a  malignant  pleasure  in  injuring  those 
whom  Nature  has  ordained  he  should  protect. 

Summary.  — Richardson  sums  up  the  various  diseases  caused  by  alcohol 
as  follows  :  ' '  (a).  Diseases  of  the  brain  and  nervous  system,  indicated 
by  such  names  as  apoplexy,  epilepsy,  paralysis,  vertigo,  softening  of  the 
brain,  delirium  tremens,  dipsomania  or  inordinate  craving  for  drink,  loss 
of  memory,  and  that  general  failure  of  the  mental  power,  called  dementia. 
(b).  Diseases  of  the  lungs  :  one  form  of  consumption,  congestion,  and  sub- 
sequent bronchitis.  (c).  Diseases  of  the  heart :  irregular  beat,  feeble- 
ness of  the  muscular  walls,  dilatation,  disease  of  the  valves,  (d).  Diseases 
of  the  blood :  scurvy,  excess  of  water  or  dropsy,  separation  of  fibrin,  (e). 
Diseases  of  the  stomach  :  feebleness  of  the  stomach,  indigestion,  flatulency, 
irritation,  and  sometimes  inflammation.  (/ ).  Diseases  of  the  bowels  : 
relaxation  or  purging,  irritation.  (g).  Diseases  of  the  liver  :  congestion, 


132  THE  NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 

hardening  and  shrinking,  cirrhosis,  (h}.  Diseases  of  the  kidneys  :  change 
of  structure  into  fatty  or  waxy-like  condition  and  other  results  leading  to 
dropsy,  or  sometimes  to  fatal  sleep.  (i).  Diseases  of  the  muscles  ;  fatty 
change  in  the  muscles,  by  which  they  lose  their  power  for  proper  active 
contraction,  (j}.  Diseases  of  the  membranes  of  the  body  :  thickening  and 
loss  of  elasticity,  by  which  the  parts  wrapped  up  in  the  membiane  are  im- 
paired for  use,  and  premature  decay  is  induced." 

II.     TOBACCO. 

The  Chief  Constituents  of  Tobacco  are  car- 
bonic acid,  carbonic  oxide,  and  ammonia  gases ; 
carbon,  or  soot ;  and  nicotine.  Carbonic  acid  tends 
to  produce  sleepiness  and  headache.  Carbonic  oxide, 
in  addition,  causes  a  tremulous  movement  of  the 
muscles,  and  so  of  the  heart.  Ammonia  bites  the 
tongue  of  the  smoker,  excites  the  salivary  glands, 
and  causes  dryness  of  the  mouth  and  throat.  Nico- 
tine is  a  powerful  poison.  The  amount  contained  in 
one  or  two  strong  cigars,  if  thrown  directly  into  the 
blood,  would  cause  death. 

Physiological  Effects. — The  poison  of  tobacco,  set 
free  by  the  process  either  of  chewing  or  smoking, 
when  for  the  first  time  swept  through  the  system  by 
the  blood,  powerfully  affects  the  body.  Nausea  is 
felt,  and  the  stomach  seeks  to  throw  off  the  offending 
substance.  The  brain  is  inflamed,  and  headache 
follows.  The  motor-nerves  becoming  irritated,  gid- 
diness ensues.  Thus  Nature  earnestly  protests 
against  the  formation  of  this  habit.  But,  after 
repeated  trials,  the  system  adjusts  itself  to  the  new 
conditions.  Such  powerful  substances  cannot,  how- 
ever, be  constantly  inhaled  without  producing 
marked  changes.  The  three  great  eliminating 


ALCOHOL.  133 

organs— the  lungs,  the  skin,  and  the  kidneys — throw 
off  a  large  part  of  the  products,  but  much  remains  in 
the  system.  When  the  presence  of  the  poison  is 
constant,  and  especially  when  smoking  or  chewing 
is  excessive,  the  temporary  disturbance  leads  to 
chronic  derangement. 

In  this,  as  in  the  case  of  other  injurious  articles  of 
diet,  the  strong  and  healthy  sometimes  seem  to  es- 
cape entirely,  while  the  weak  and  those  predisposed 
to  disease  suffer  according  to  the  extent  of  the  in- 
dulgence. Those  who  lead  an  active,  outdoor  life 
often  show  no  sign  of  nicotine  poisoning,  but  the 
man  of  sedentary  habits  will  sooner  or  later  be  the 
victim  of  dyspepsia,  sleeplessness,  nervousness,  paral- 
ysis, or  some  other  organic  difficulty.  Here,  again, 
the  law  of  heredity  asserts  itself,  and  though  the 
tobacco-user  himself  escapes,  his  innocent  offspring 
only  too  often  inherit  an  impaired  constitution,  and 
a  tendency  to  nervous  disease. 

The  Various  Disturbances  produced  in  different  individuals  and 
constitutions  by  smoking  have  been  summed  up  by  Dr.  Richardson  as  fol- 
lows :  "  (a)  In  the  blood,  it  causes  undue  fluidity,  and  change  in  the  red 
corpuscles  ;  (6)  in  the  stomach,  it  gives  rise  to  debility,  nausea,  and  vom- 
iting ;  (c)  in  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth,  it  produces  enlargement 
and  soreness  of  the  tonsils — smoker's  sore-throat — redness,  dryness,  and 
occasional  peeling  of  the  membrane,  and  either  unnatural  firmness  and  con- 
traction, or  sponginess  of  the  gums  ;  and,  where  the  pipe  rests  on  the  lips, 
oftentimes  '  epithelial  cancer  ; '  (d)  in  the  heart,  it  causes  debility  of  the 
organ,  and  irregular  action  ;  (e)  in  the  bronchial  surface  of  the  lungs,  when 
that  is  already  irritable,  it  sustains  irritation,  and  increases  the  cough  ;  (/) 
in  the  organs  of  sense,  it  produces  dilation  of  the  pupils  of  the  eye,  con- 
fusion of  vision,  bright  lines,  luminous  or  cobweb  specks,  and  long  reten- 
tion of  images  on  the  retina,  with  analogous  symptoms  affecting  the  ear, 


134  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

viz. :  inability  to  define  sounds  clearly,  and  the  occurrence  of  a  sharp,  ring- 
ing noise  like  a  whistle  ;  (g)  in  the  brain,  it  impairs  the  activity  of  the 
organ,  oppressing  it  if  it  be  nourished,  but  soothing  it  if  it  be  exhausted  ; 
(h)  it  leads  to  paralysis  in  the  motor  and  sympathetic  nerves,  and  to  over- 
secretion  from  the  glands  which  the  sympathetic  nerves  control." 

CIGARETTES  are  especially  injurious  from  the  irritating  smoke  of  the  paper 
covering,  and  also  because  the  poison-fumes  of  the  tobacco  are  more  directly 
inhaled.  In  the  cheap  cigarettes  often  smoked  by  boys,  the  ingredients  are 
harmful,  while  every  youth  would  revolt  if  he  knew  what  filthy  materials, 
refuse  cigar-stumps,  &c. ,  are  used  in  their  manufacture. 

Is  Tobacco  a  Food? — Tobacco  cannot  impart  to 
the  blood  an  atom  of  nutritive  matter  for  building  up 
the  body.  It  does  not  add  to,  but  rather  subtracts 
from,  the  total  vital  force.  It  confers  no  power  upon' 
muscle  or  brain.  It  stimulates  by  cutting  off  the 
nervous  supply  from  the  extremities  and  concentra- 
ting it  upon  the  centers.  But  stimulation  is  not 
nourishment ;  it  is  only  a  rapid  spending  of  the  cap- 
ital stock.  There  is  no  greater  error  than  to  mistake 
the  exciting  of  an  organ  for  its  strengthening. 

The  Influence  upon  Youth. — Here,  too,  science  and 
experience  assert  only  one  conviction.  Tobacco  re- 
tards the  development  of  mind  and  body.  The  law 
of  nature  is  that  of  steady  growth.  It  cannot  admit 
of  a  daily  disturbance  that  weakens  the  digestion, 
that  causes  the  heart  to  labor  excessively,  that  pre- 
vents the  perfect  oxidation  of  the  blood,  that  inter- 
feres with  the  digestion,  and  that  deranges  the  ner- 
vous system.  No  one  has  a  right  thus  to  check  and 
disturb  his  physical  and  mental  progress.  Hence,  the 
young  man  (especially  if  he  be  of  a  nervous,  sensitive 
organization)  who  uses  tobacco  diminishes  the  pos- 
sible energy  with  which  he  might  commence  the 


OPIUM.  135 

work  of  life  ;  while  he  comes  under  the  bondage  of  a 
habit  that  may  become  stronger  than  his  will,  and 
under  the  influence  of  a  narcotic  that  may  beguile 
his  faculties  and  palsy  his  strength  at  the  very  mo- 
ment when  every  power  should  be  awake. 

Another  peril  lies  in  the  wake  of  this  masterful 
poison-habit.  Tobacco  causes  a  thirst  and  depression 
that  only  too  often  lead  to  the  use  of  liquor. 

III.     OPIUM. 

Opium  is  the  dried  juice  of  the  poppy.  In  Eastern 
countries,  this  flower  is  cultivated  in  immense  fields. 
When  a  cut  is  made  in  the  poppy-head,  a  tiny  tear  of 
milky  juice  exudes,  and  hardens.  These  little  drops 
are  gathered  and  prepared  for  the  market.  Through- 
out the  East,  opium  is  generally  smoked;  but  in 
Western  countries,  it  is  taken  usually  in  the  form  of 
laudanum,  paregoric,  and  morphine.  The  drug  itself 
is  also  eaten. 

Physiological  Effect. — Opium,  in  its  various  forms, 
acts  directly  upon  the  nerves,  a  small  dose  quieting 
pain,  and  a  larger  one  soothing  to  sleep.  It  arouses 
the  brain,  and  fires  the  imagination  to  a  wonderful 
pitch.  The  reaction  from  this  unnatural  excitant 
is  correspondingly  depressing  ;  and  the  "  overwhelm- 
ing horror "  that  ensues,  calls  for  a  renewal  of  the 
stimulus.  The  dose  must  be  gradually  increased  to 
produce  the  original  effect,  and  must  be  taken  at  the 
habitual  hour,  no  matter  what  the  circumstances, 
under  the  penalty  of  almost  unendurable  agony. 

The  seductive  nature  of  this  drug  leads  on  its  un- 
fortunate victim  step  by  step,  until  he  finds  himself 


136  THE  NERVOUS   SYSTEM. 

fast  bound  in  the  fetters  of  the  most  tyrannical  habit 
known  to  man.  To  continue,  is  to  wreck  all  one's 
powers— physical  and  mental ;  to  stop,  requires  a 
strength  of  will  that  few  possess.  Even  when  the 
habit  is  broken,  the  system  is  long  in  recovering  from 
the  shock.  Opium  seems  to  be  the  foe  of  every 
organ.  The  digestion  is  weakened,  the  appetite  is 
lost,  the  muscles  waste,  the  skin  shrivels,  the  ner- 
vous centers  are  paralyzed,  and  a  premature^  old  age 
comes  on  apace. 

No  person  can  be  too  careful  in  the  use  of  laudanum, 
paregoric,  and  morphine.  They  should  never  be 
taken  except  on  a  physician's  prescription.  If  fol- 
lowed up  for  any  length  of  time,  the  habit  may  be 
formed  ere  one  is  aware.  Then  comes  the  opium- 
eater's  grave,  or  the  opium-eater's  struggle  for  life  ! 

Many  persons  learn  to  inject  morphine  beneath  the  skin  by  means  of  a 
"hypodermic  syringe."  The  operation  is  painless,  and  seems  innocent 
enough.  It  throws  the  narcotic  directly  into  the  circulation,  and  relief 
from  pain  almost  instantly  follows.  But  the  danger  of  forming  the  opium 
habit  is  not  lessened,  and  the  effect  of  using  the  drug  in  this  form  for  a  long 
time  is  just  as  injurious  as  opium-smoking  itself. 

IV.  CHLORAL  HYDRATE. 

Chloral  Hydrate  is  a  drug  frequently  used  to  cause 
sleep.  It  leaves  behind  no  headache  or  lassitude,  as 
is  often  the  case  with  morphine.  It  is,  however,  a 
treacherous  remedy.  Even  a  small  and  harmless 
dose,  persisted  in  for  a  long  period,  may  produce  a 
gradual  accumulation  of  evil  results  that  in  the  end 
will  prove  fatal. 

The  Physiological  Effect  is  very  marked.      The 


CHLOROFORM.  137 

appetite  becomes  capricious.  The  secretions  are  un- 
natural. Nausea  often  ensues.  Then  the  nervous 
system  is  involved.  The  heart  is  affected.  Sleep  is 
broken.  Finally  the  blood  becomes  unduly  fluid,  as 
it  does  in  the  case  of  persons  deprived  of  fresh  food. 
A  disease  resembling  scurvy  follows,  and  the  skin 
breaks  out  in  unsightly  blotches. 

V.   CHLOROFORM. 

Chloroform  is  a  powerful  anaesthetic.  It  is  some- 
times prescribed  by  a  physician,  and  afterward  (as  in 
the  case  of  laudanum,  morphine,  and  chloral)  the 
sufferer,  charmed  with  the  release  from  pain  and  the 
peaceful  slumber  secured,  buys  the  dangerous  drug 
for  himself.  Its  use  soon  becomes  an  apparent  neces- 
sity. As  with  opium,  the  craving  for  the  narcotic 
at  a  stated  time  is  almost  irresistible.  If  it  be  with- 
held, the  half -frantic  patient  will  demand,  entreat, 
pray  for  another  dose,  in  a  manner  never  to  be  for- 
gotten. Paleness  and  debility,  the  earliest  symp- 
toms, are  followed  by  mental  prostration.  Famili- 
arity with  the  dangerous  drug  begets  carelessness. 
Its  victims  are  frequently  found  dead  in  their  beds, 
with  the  handkerchief  from  which  they  inhaled  the 
volatile  poison  clutched  in  their  lifeless  hands. 


PRACTICAL     QUESTIONS. 

1.  Why  is  the  pain  of  incipient  hip-disease  frequently  felt  in  the  knee  ? 

2.  Why  does  a  child  require  more  sleep  than  an  aged  person  ? 

3.  When  you  put  your  finger  in  the  palm  of  a  sleeping  child,  why  will 
he  grasp  it  ? 

4.  How  may  we  strengthen  the  brain  ? 


138 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


5.  What  is  the  object  of  pain  ? 

6.  Why  will  a  blow  on  the  stomach  sometimes  stop  the  heart  ? 

7.  Why  can  an  idle  scholar  read  his  lesson  and  at  the  same  time  count 
the  marbles  in  his  pocket  ? 

8.  How  can  we  grow  beautiful  ? 

9.  Why  do  intestinal  worms  ever  affect  a  child's  sight  ? 

10.  Is  there  any  indication  of  character  in  physiognomy  ? 

11.  When  one's  finger  is  burned,  where  is  the  ache  ? 

12.  Why  can  we  walk  and  talk  at  the  same  time  ? 


BLACKBOARD    ANALYSIS. 


1.  THE  STRUCTURE. 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 

2.  ORGANS  OF  THE  NER-  • 
vous  SYSTEM. 

3.  HYGIEKE  •      .           -< 

(                                       (1.  Description. 
1.  The  brain  <  2.  The  Cerebrum. 
(  3.  The  Cerebellum. 

9     Tho  <Jr,ina1  rW/1           j    *•    ItS  Composition. 

2.  The  Spinal  Cord...  -j  2  Medulla  oblongata. 

(  1.  Description. 
2.  Motor*  and  Sensory. 
|  3.  Transfer  of  Pain. 
1  4.  The  Spinal  Nerves. 
3.  The  Nerves  ....         -i.  5   The  Cranial  Nerves 

1  6.  Sympathetic  System. 
7.  Crossing  of  Cords. 
1  8.  Reflex  Action. 
^  9.  Uses  of  Reflex  Action. 

'1.  Brain  Exercise. 
2.  Brain-growth  and  Body-growth. 
3.  Sleep. 
4.  Effect  of  Sleeping-draughts. 
V5.  Sunlight. 

or. 

o--.-  r 

•g?    |  1.  Effect  upon  the  Nervous  System. 
o  "g  -^  2.  Effect  upon  the  Brain. 
<S  g    |  3.  Efl'ect  upon  Mental  and  Moral  Powers. 

c    f  1.  Constituents  of  Tobacco. 
g      2.  Physiological  Effects. 
^   J  3.  Influence  upon  the  Nervous  System. 
c  ""j  4.  Disturbances  produced  by  smoking 
^    j  5.  Is  Tobacco  a  Food  ? 
d    ^  6.  Influence  of  Tobacco  upon  Youth. 

3.  Opium. 

4.  Chloral  Hydrate. 
5.  Chloroform. 

4.  WONDERS  OF  THE  BRA 

5.  ALCOHOLIC    DRINKS, 
AND  NARCOTICS.        -\ 

i 

THE    SPECIAL    SENSES. 


1.     TO  UGH. 

DESCRIPTION.— Touch  is  sometimes  called  the 
"  common  sense,"  since  its  nerves  are  spread 
over  the  whole  body.  It  is  most  delicate,  however, 
in  the  point  of  the  tongue  and  the  tips  of  the  fingers. 
The  surface  of  the  cutis  is  covered  with  minute  pro- 
jections called  papillce  (Fig.  20).  Each  of  these  con- 
tains its  tiny  nerve-twigs,  that  receive  the  impression 
and  send  it  to  the  brain. 

Experiment.— With  a  pocket-lens,  examine  the  palm  of  the  hand, 
where  there  are  at  least  12,000  papillae  in  a  square  inch,  and  note  the  fine 
ridges  along  which  they  are  arranged. 

Uses. — Touch  is  the  first  of  the  senses  used  by  a 
child.  By  it  we  obtain  our  idea  of  solidity,  and  also 
correct  the  impressions  made  upon  us  by  the  other 
senses.  Thus,  when  we  see  anything  curious,  our 
first  desire  is  to  handle  it.  The  sensation  of  touch  is 
generally  relied  upon,  yet  it  is  easily  deceived. 

Experiments. — 1.  Hold  a  marble  in  the  manner  shown  in  Fig.  49. 
It  will  seem  like  two  marbles.  2.  Touch  the  fingers  thus  crossed  to  your 
tongue.  You  will  feel  two  tongues.  3.  Close  your  eyes  and  let  another 


140  THE  SPECIAL  SENSES. 

person  move  one  of  your  fingers  over  a  plane  surface,  first  lightly,  then 
with  greater  pressure,  and  then  lightly  again.     You  will  think  the  surface 


This  sense  is  capable  of  wonderful  cultivation,  and 
the  delicacy  of  touch  possessed  by  the  blind  almost 
compensates  the  loss  of  their  eyes.  The  sympathy 


Fig. 


between  all  the  different  organs  shows  how  they 
combine  to  make  a  home  for  the  mind.  When  one 
sense  fails,  the  others  try  to  remedy  the  defect.  It 
is  touching  to  see  how  the  blind  man  gets  along 
without  eyes,  and  the  deaf  without  ears.  Cuthbert, 
though  blind,  was  the  best  polisher  of  telescopic 
mirrors  in  London.  There  is  an  instance  recorded 
of  a  blind  man  who  could  recognize  colors.  The 
author  knew  one  who  said  he  could  tell  when  he  was 
approaching  a  tree,  "  by  the  different  feeling  of  the 
air." 

2.     TASTE. 

Description. — This  sense  is  located  in  the  papillae 
of  the  tongue  and  palate. 

Experiment. — Put  a  drop  of  vinegar  on  another  person's  tongue,  or 
on  your  own  before  a  mirror,  and  notice  how  the  papillae  rise. 


TASTE. 


141 


The  velvety  look  of  the  tongue  is  given  by  hair- 
like  projections  of  the  cuticle  upon  some  of  the 
papillae.  They  absorb  the  liquid  to  be  tasted,  and 
convey  it  to  the  nerves.  A  substance  that  will  not 
dissolve  is  tasteless. 

The  back  of  the  tongue  is  most  sensitive  to  salt 


Fig.  50. 


The  Tongue,  showing  the  three  kinds  of  Papilla— the  conical  (D),  the  whip-like  (K 
I),  the  circumvallate  or  entrenched  (H,  L) ;  E,  F,  G,  nerves ;  C,  glottis.— Lankester. 

and  bitter  tastes,  and,  as  this  part  is  supplied  by  the 
ninth  pair  of  nerves  (Fig.  47),  which  is  in  sympathy 


142  THE   SPECIAL   SENSES. 

with  the  stomach,  such  flavors  often  produce  vomit- 
ing. The  edges  of  the  tongue  are  most  sensitive  to 
sweet  and  sour  substances,  and,  as  this  part  is  sup- 
plied by  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves,  which  also  goes  to 
the  face,  an  acid  distorts  the  countenance. 

The  Use  of  the  Taste  was  originally  to  guide  in 
the  selection  of  food  ;  but  it  has  become  so  depraved 
by  condiments  and  habit  that  it  would  be  difficult  to 
tell  what  are  one's  natural  tastes. 

Fin.  51. 


A,  b,  c,  d,  interior  or  the  nose,  which  ii  lined  by  a  mucous  membrane  ;  n,  tne  nose  ; 
e  the  wing  of  the  nose :  q,  the  nose  bones;  o,  the  upper  lip;  g,  section  of  the  vpptr 
jaw-bone;  h,  the  upper  part  of  the  mouth,  or  hard  palate ;  m,  frontal  bone  of  the 
skull ;  k,  the  ganglion  or  bulb  of  the  olfactory  nerve  in  the  skull,  from  uhich  are  seen 
the  branches  of  the  nerve  passing  in  all  directions. 

3.     SMELL. 

Description. — The  olfactory  nerves  (first  pair,  Fig. 
47)  enter  through  a  sieve-like,  bony  plate  at  the  roof 


HEARING. 


143 


of  the  nose,  and  are  distributed  over  the  inner  sur- 
face of  the  two  olfactory  chambers.  The  object  to 
be  smelled  need  not  touch  the  nose,  but  tiny  particles 
borne  on  the  air  enter  the  nasal  passages. 

The  Uses  of  the  sense  of  smell  are  to  guide  us  in 
the  choice  of  our  food,  and  to  warn  us  against  bad 
air,  and  unhealthy  localities. 


4.     HEARING. 
Fig.  52. 


The  Ear. 

Description. — The  ear  is  divided  into  the  external, 
middle,  and  internal  ear. 

1.  THE  EXTERNAL  EAR  is  a  sheet  of  cartilage 
curiously  folded  for  catching  sound.  The  auditory 
canal,  B,  or  tube  of  this  ear-trumpet,  is  about  an 
inch  long.  Across  the  lower  end  is  stretched  the 
membrane  of  the  tympanum  or  drum,  which  is  kept 
soft  by  a  fluid  wax. 


144  THE   SPECIAL  SENSES. 

2.  THE  MIDDLE  EAR  is  a  cavity,  at  the  bottom  of 
which  is  the  Eustachian  tube,    Gr,  leading  to  the 
mouth.     Across  this  chamber  hangs  a  chain  of  three 
singular  little  bones,  C,  named  from  their  shape  the 
hammer,  the  anvil,  and  the  stirrup.     Though  these 
tiny  bones  weigh  all  together  only  a  few  grains,  yet 
they  have  two  perfect  joints, — a  ball-and-socket,  and 
a  hinge. 

3.  THE  INTERNAL  EAR,  or  labyrinth,  is  hollowed 
out  of  the  solid  bone.     In  front,  is  the  vestibule,  A, 
about  as  large  as  a  grain  of  wheat ;   from  it  open 
three  semi-circular  canals,  D,  and  the  winding  stair 
of  the  cochlea,  or  snail  shell,  E.     Here  expand  the 
delicate  fibrils  of  the  auditory  nerve. 

Floating  in  the  liquid  which  fills  the  labyrinth  is 
a  little  bag  containing  hair-like  bristles,  fine  sand, 
and  two  ear-stones.  In  the  cochlea  are  minute  ten- 
drils, named  the  fibers  of  Corti,  from  their  discov- 
erer. These  are  regularly  arranged, — the  longest  at 
the  bottom,  and  the  shortest  at  the  top.  Could  this 
spiral  plate,  which  coils  two  and  a  half  times  around, 
be  unrolled  and  made  to  stand  upright,  it  would  form 
a  beautiful  microscopic  harp  of  three  thousand 
strings. 

How  We  Hear. — Whenever  one  body  strikes  an- 
other in  the  air,  waves  are  produced,  just  as  when 
we  throw  a  stone  into  the  water  a  series  of  circles 
surrounds  the  spot  where  it  sinks.  These  waves  of 
air  strike  upon  the  membrane.  This  vibrates,  and 
sends  the  motion  along  the  chain  of  bones  in  the 
middle  ear  to  the  fluids  of  the  labyrinth.  Here 
bristles,  sand,  and  stones  pound  away,  and  the  won- 


SIGHT.  145 

drous  harp  of  the  cochlea,  catching  up  the  pulsa- 
tions, carries  them  to  the  fibers  of  the  auditory 
nerve,  which  conveys  them  to  the  brain,  and  gives 
the  mind  the  idea  of  sound.  During  this  process,  the 
original  pulsations  are  mysteriously  modified  by  the 
bristles,  ear-stones,  &c.,  so  that  they  can  affect  the 
nerve. 

Care  of  the  Ear.— The  delicacy  of  the  ear  is  such 
that  it  needs  the  greatest  care.  Cold  water  should 
not  be  allowed  to  enter  the  auditory  canal.  If  the 
wax  accumulate,  never  remove  it  with  a  hard  instru- 
ment, lest  the  delicate  membrane  be  injured,  but 
with  a  little  warm  water,  after  which  turn  the  head 
to  let  the  water  run  out,  and  wipe  the  ear  dry. 
The  hair  around  the  ears  should  never  be  left  wet, 
as  it  may  chill  this  sensitive  organ.  If  an  insect 
get  in  the  external  ear,  pour  in  a  little  oil  to  kill  it, 
and  then  remove  with  tepid  water.  The  object  of 
the  Eustachian  tube  is  to  admit  air  into  the  ear,  and 
thus  equalize  the  pressure  on  the  membrane. 

3.    SIGHT. 

Description. — The  eye  is  lodged  in  a  bony  cavity, 
protected  by  the  overhanging  brow.  It  is  a  globe, 
about  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  ball  is  covered  by 
three  coats — (1)  the  sclerotic,  d,  a  tough,  horny  casing, 
which  gives  shape  to  the  eye,  the  convex,  trans- 
parent part  in  front  forming  a  window,  the  cornea,  c  ; 
(2)  the  choroid,  e,  a  black  lining,  to  absorb  the  super- 
fluous light ;  and  (3)  the  retina,  6,  a  membrane  in 
which  expand  fibers  of  the  optic  nerve,  o.  The  crys- 


146 


THE   SPECIAL   SENSES, 


0-' 


The  Eye. 

talline  lens,  a,  brings  th.3  rays  of  light  to  a  focus  on 
the  retina.  Between  the  cornea  and  the  crystalline 
lens  is  a  limpid  fluid  termed  the  aqueous  humor ; 
while  the  vitreous  humor — a  transparent,  jelly-like 
liquid — fills  the  space  (h)  back  of  the  crystalline  lens. 
The  pupil,  k,  is  a  hole  in  the  colored,  muscular  cur- 
tain, i,  the  iris  (rainbow). 

Experiment. — Take  the  eye  of  a  freshly  slaughtered  ox  or  sheep,  and, 
with  a  pair  of  scissors,  clip  the  sclerotic  half-way  between  the  cornea  and 
the  optic  nerve.  You  can  then  see  the  choroid  with  its  black  lining,  and 
inside  it  the  vitreous  jelly  with  the  retina  spread  out  around  it.  By  a 
little  force  the  vitreous  humor  and  the  lens  set  in  it  will  come  out,  and  you 
will  see  the  retina  collapse  into  a  whitish  mass  attached  to  the  point  where 
the  optic  nerve  comes  in.  In  an  ox's  eye,  you  will  see  that  a  part  of  the 
choroid  resembles  a  mirror  ; — it  is  the  same  with  the  cat,  which  causes  the 
shining  of  her  eye  in  the  dark. 


THE   SPECIAL  SENSES.  147 

The  front  half  of  the  eye  will  show  you  the  iris — which  is  always  black 
at  the  back,  whatever  color  the  front  may  be, — and  the  transparent  cornea. 
If  you  stick  a  pin  into  the  cornea,  the  aqueous  humor  will  spirt  out. 

Eyelids  and  Tears. — The  eyelids  are  close-fitting 
shutters  to  screen  the  eye.  The  inner  side  is  lined 
with  a  mucous  membrane  that  is  exceedingly  sensi- 
tive, and  thus  aids  in  protecting  the  eye  from  any 
irritating  substance.  The  eyelashes  serve  as  a  sieve 
to  exclude  the  dust,  and,  with  the  lids,  shield  against 
a  blinding  light.  Just  within  the  lashes  are  oil 
glands,  which  lubricate  the  edges  of  the  lids,  and 

Fig.  5k. 


T-B 

The  Eyelashes  and 

prevent  them  from  adhering  to  each  other.  The  tear 
(lachrymal)  gland,  6r,  is  an  oblong  body  lodged  in  the 
bony  wall  of  the  orbit.  It  empties  by  several  ducts 
upon  the  inner  surface,  at  the  outer  edge  of  the 
upper  eyelid.  Thence  the  tears,  washing  the  eye, 
run  into  the  lachrymal  lake,  D,  a  little  basin  with  a 
rounded  border  fitted  for  their  reception.  On  each 
side  of  this  lake,  two  canals,  (7,  C,  drain  off  the  over- 
plus through  the  duct,  B,  into  the  nose. 


148 


THE  SPECIAL  SENSES. 


Fig,  65. 


Structure  cf  the  Retina.— In  Fig. 
55,  is  shown  a  section  of  the  retina, 
greatly  magnified.  The  layer  of 
rods  and  cones  (a,  6,)  is  to  the  eye 
what  the  bristles,  ear-stones,  etc., 
are  to  the  ear,  changing  the  vibra- 
tions of  light  in  somo  mysterious 
way  so  that  they  can  affect  the 
nerve.  The  optic  nerve  itself  is 
insensible  to  light.  At  the  point 
where  it  enters  the  eye,  there  are 
no  rods  and  cones,  and  this  is  called 
the  blind  spot. 

Experiment. — Hold  this  book  directly  be- 
fore the  face,  and,  closing  the  left  eye,  look 
steadily  with  the  right  at  the  left-hand  circle  in 
Fig.  56.  Move  the  book  back  and  forth,  and  a 
point  will  be  found  where  the  right-hand  circle 
vanishes  from  sight.  At  that  moment  its  light 
falls  upon  the  spot  where  the  rods  and  cones  are 
lacking. 


How  We  See. — There  is  believed 


Structure  of  Vie  Retina. 
—a,  the  rods  ;  b,  t/te  cones ; 
c,  the  nerve-granules  ;  d, 
a  mesh  ;f,  nerve-granules; 
g,  nerve-fibers:  A,  gan-  ,  .  . 

giia :  i,  fibers  of  optic  to  be  a  kind  of  atmosphere,  termed 
ether,  filling  all  space.     This  is  in- 
finitely more  delicate  than  the  air,  and  occupies  its 


THE  SPECIAL  SENSES.  140 

pores,  as  well  as  those  of  all  bodies.  As  sound  is 
caused  by  waves  in  the  air,  so  light  is  produced  by 
waves  in  the  ether.  A  lamp-light,  for  example,  sets 
in  motion  waves  of  ether,  which  pass  in  through  the 
pupil  of  the  eye  to  the  retina,  where  the  rods  and 
cones  modify  and  then  transmit  the  vibration  through 
the  optic  nerve  to  the  brain,  when  the  mind  perceives 
the  light. 

The  Use  of  the  Crystalline  Lens. — A  convex  lens 
bends  the  rays  of  light  which  pass  through  it,  so  that 
they  meet  at  a  point  called  the  focus. 

Fig.  57, 


Diagram  showing  how  an  image  of  an  object  is  formed  upon  the  retina  by  the 
Crystalline  Lens. 

Experiments. — 1.  Hold  a  common  burning-glass  or  pocket-lens  over 
a  piece  of  black  paper  under  a  bright,  noon-day  sun,  and  note  how  it  brings 
the  rays  to  a  focus.  In  the  same  way,  the  crystalline  lens  brings  the  rays 
of  light  that  enter  the  eye  to  a  focus  upon  the  retina.  2.  Take  a  narrow 
piece  of  board  two  feet  long.  Stick  into  it  two  large  pins,  about  twelve  or 
fifteen  inches  apart,  and  not  in  a  straight  line.  Look  at  the  pins  along  the 
board  somewhat  as  you  would  "  sight"  a  gun.  If  you  fix  your  eye  on  the 
nearer  pin,  you  will  see  it  distinctly,  but  the  further  one  will  become  blurred. 
If  you  look  fixedly  at  the  further  one,  that  will  become  distinct,  and  the 
nearer  one  blurred.  By  no  effort  can  you  make  both  pins  perfectly  distinct 
at  the  same  time.  Now  look  rapidly  from  one  to  the  other  and  see  how 


160 


THE  CRYSTALLINE  LBN'S. 


soon  your  eye  adjusts  itself  to  each.  The  lens  of  a  healthy  eye  has  this 
power  of  adapting  itself,  by  changing  its  convexity  (see  Fig.  58),  to  near 
and  to  distant  objects,  so  as  exactly  to  bring  the  rays  of  light  which  come 
from  them  to  a  focus  on  the  retina. 

Near  and  Far  Sight. — If,  however,  the  lens  of  the 
eye  be  too  convex,  it  will  bring  the  rays  to  a  focus 
before  they  reach  the  retina ;  if  too  flat,  they  will 
reach  the  retina  before  coming  to  a  focus.  In  either 

Fig.  68. 


A  B 

Adjustment  of  the  Crystalline  Lens.    A.  for  far  objects,  and  B,for  near. 

case,  the  sight  will  be  indistinct.  A  more  common 
defect  is  in  the  shape  of  the  globe  of  the  eye,  which 
may  be  either  flattened  or  elongated.  In  the  former 
case  (see  G,  Fig.  59),  objects  at  a  distance  can  be 

Fig.  59. 


Diagram  illustrating  the  position  of  the  Retina.— ft,  in  natural  sight  ,•  G,  in  far 
sight ;  and  C,  in  near  sight. 

seen  most  distinctly — hence  that  is  called  far-sighted- 
ness (presbyopia).  In  the  latter,  objects  near  by  are 
clearer,  and  hence  this  is  termed  near-sightedness 


CAfcE  OF  THE  EYES.  l£l 

(myopia).  Far-sightedness  is  remedied  by  convex 
glasses ;  near-sightedness,  by  concave.  When  glasses 
will  improve  the  sight  they  should  be  worn  ;  any 
delay  will  be  liable  to  injure  the  eyes,  by  straining 
their  already  impaired  power.  Cataract  is  a  disease 
in  which  the  crystalline  lens  becomes  opaque  and 
obscures  the  vision.  A  skilful  surgeon  can  remove 
the  lens,  or  cause  it  to  be  absorbed,  after  which  con- 
vex glasses  must  be  worn. 

Color-Blind  Persons  receive  only  two  of  the  three 
elementary  color-sensations  (green,  red,  violet).  They 
are  unable  to  distinguish  between  the  leaves  of  a 
cherry-tree  and  its  fruit  by  the  color  of  the  two,  and 
see  no  difference  between  blue  and  yellow  cloth. 
Whittier,  the  poet,  it  is  said,  cannot  tell  red  from 
green  unless  in  direct  sunlight.  Once  he  patched 
some  damaged  wall-paper  in  his  library  by  matching 
a  green  vine  in  the  pattern  with  one  of  a  bright 
autumnal  crimson.  Persons  are  often  color-blind 
without  knowing  it,  and  many  railway  accidents 
have  doubtless  happened  through  an  inability  to 
detect  the  color  of  the  signal  lights. 

Care  of  the  Eyes. — The  shape  of  the  eye  cannot 
be  changed  by  rubbing  and  pressing  it,  as  many  sup- 
pose, but  the  sight  may  thus  be  fatally  injured. 
Children  troubled  by  near-sightedness  should  not 
lean  forward  at  their  work,  as  thereby  the  vessels 
of  the  eye  become  overcharged  with  blood.  They 
should  avoid  fine  print,  and  try,  in  every  possible 
way,  to  spare  their  eyes.  Most  cases  of  squinting 
are  caused  by  long-sightedness,  the  muscles  being 
strained  in  the  effort  to  obtain  distinct  vision.  In 


SIGHT. 

childhood,  it  may  be  cured  by  a  competent  surgeon, 
who  will  generally  cut  the  muscle  that  draws  the 
eye  out  of  place. 

Even  healthy  eyes  should  never  be  used  to  read 
fine  print  or  by  a  dim  light.  Serious  injury  may 
thus  be  caused.  Reading  upon  the  cars  is  also  a 
fruitful  source  of  harm,  as  the  lens,  forced  to  adapt 
itself  to  the  incessantly-varying  distance  of  the 
page,  soon  becomes  wearied. 

Objects  that  get  into  the  eye  should  be  removed 
before  they  cause  inflammation ;  rubbing  only  irri- 
tates and  increases  the  sensitiveness.  If  the  eye  be 
shut  for  a  few  moments,  so  as  to  let  the  tears  accu- 
mulate, and  the  upper  lid  be  then  lifted  by  taking 
hold  of  it  at  the  center,  the  cinder  or  dust  is  often 
washed  away  at  once.  Trifling  objects  can  be  re- 
moved by  simply  drawing  the  upper  lid  as  far  as 
possible  over  the  lower  one  ;  when  the  lid  flies  back 
to  its  place,  the  friction  will  detach  any  light  sub- 
stance. If  it  becomes  necessary,  turn  the  upper  lid 
over  a  pencil,  and  the  intruder  may  then  be  wiped 
off  with  a  handkerchief.  "Eye-stones"  are  a  popu- 
lar delusion.  When  they  seem  to  take  out  a  cinder, 
it  is  only  because  they  raise  the  eye-lid,  and  allow 
the  tears  to  wash  it  out.  No  one  should  ever  use  an 
eye-wash,  except  by  medical  advice.  The  eye  is  too 
delicate  an  organ  to  be  trifled  with,  and  when  any 
disease  is  suspected,  a  reliable  physician  should  be 
consulted.  This  is  especially  necessary,  since, 
when  one  eye  is  injured,  the  other,  by  sympathy, 
is  liable  to  become  inflamed,  and  perhaps  be 
destroyed. 


PRACTICAL  QUESTIONS.  153 

When  reading  or  working,  the  light  should  be  at 
one  side,  and  never  in  front. 

The  constant  increase  of  defective  eyesight  among 
the  pupils  in  our  schools  is  an  alarming  fact.  Dr. 
Agnew  remarks  that  our  school-rooms  are  fast  mak- 
ing us  a  spectacle-using  people.  Near-sightedness 
seems  to  increase  from  class  to  class,  until,  in  the 
upper  departments,  there  are  sometimes  as  high  as 
fifty  per  cent,  of  the  pupils  thus  afflicted.  The 
causes  are  (1),  desks  so  placed  as  to  make  the  light 
from  the  windows  shine  directly  into  the  eyes  of  the 
scholars  ;  (2),  cross-lights  from  opposite  windows  ; 
(3)  insufficient  light ;  (4),  small  type  that  strains  the 
eyes  ;  and  (5),  the  position  of  the  pupil  as  he  bends 
over  his  desk  or  slate,  causing  his  blood  to  settle  in 
his  eyes.  All  these  causes  can  be  remedied  ;  the 
position  of  the  desks  can  be  changed ;  windows  can 
be  shaded,  or  new  ones  inserted ;  books  and  news- 
papers that  try  the  eyes  can  be  rejected  ;  and  every 
pupil  can  be  taught  how  to  sit  at  study. 


PR/VCTICAL     QUESTIONS. 

1.  "Why  does  a  laundress  test  the  temperature  of  her  flat  iron  by  holding 
it  near  her  cheek  ? 

2.  When  we  are  cold,  why  do  we  spread  the  palms  of  our  hands  before 
the  fire  ? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  a  "  furred  tongue  "  ? 

4.  Why  has  sand  or  sulphur  no  taste  ? 

5.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  world  palatable  ? 

6.  How  many  rows  of  hairs  are  there  in  the  eye-brows  ? 

7.  How  often  do  we  wink  ? 


154  THE   SIGHT. 

8.  What  is  the  object  of  the  hairs  in  the  nostrils  ? 

9.  What  use  does  the  nose  subserve  in  the  process  of  respiration  ? 

10.  Why   do  we   sometimes  hold  the   nose  when  we  take  unpleasant 
medicine  ? 

11.  Why  was  the  nose  placed  over  the  mouth  ? 

1 2.  Describe  how  the  hand  is  adapted  to  be  the  instrument  of  touch. 

13.  Besides  being  the  organ  of  taste,  what  use  does  the  tongue  sub- 
serve ? 

14.  Why  is  not  the  act  of  tasting  complete  until  we  swallow  ? 

15.  Why  do   all   things  have   the   same  flavor  when  one's  tongue  is 
1 '  furred  "  by  fever  ? 

16.  Which  sense  is  the  more  useful,  hearing  or  sight  ? 

17.  Which  coat  is  the  white  of  the  eye  ? 

18.  What  makes  the  difference  in  the  color  of  eyes  ? 

19.  Why  do  we  snuff  the  air  when  we  wish  to  obtain  a  distinct  smell  ? 

20.  Why  can  an  elderly  person  drink  tea  which  to  a  child  would  be  un- 
bearably hot  ? 

21.  Why  does  an  old  man  hold  his  paper  so  far  from  his  eyes  ? 

22.  Would  you  rather  be  punished  on  the  tips  of  your  fingers  than  on 
the  palm  of  your  hand  ? 


BLACKBOARD 


1.  THE  TOUCH  ............  |J;  Description  of  the  Orgun. 


2.  THE  TASTE 

3.  THE 


( a.  External  Ear. 
)  1.  Description  of  the  Organ  ^  b.  Middle  Ear. 

4.  THE  HEARING <  f  c.  Internal  Ear. 

|  2.  How  we  hear. 

\3.  Hygiene  of  the  Ear. 

.  Description  of  the  Organ. 

2.  Eyelids  and  Tears. 

3.  Structure  of  the  Retina, 
e   T,,,  QrnTTFI,                      J  4.  How  we  see. 

•*•  —  •• "<  5.  The  Use  of  the  Crystalline  Lens. 

6.  Near,  and  Far  Sight. 

7.  Color-blindness. 

V.8.  Hygiene  of  the  Eyei=>, 


CONCLUSION. 


VALUE  of  Health.— The  body  is  the  instrument 
which  the  mind  uses.  If  it  be  dulled  or  nicked, 
the  effect  of  the  best  labor  will  be  impaired.  The 
grandest  gifts  of  mind  or  fortune  are  comparatively 
valueless  unless  there  be  a  healthy  body  to  use  and 
enjoy  them.  The  beggar,  sturdy  and  brave  with  his 
out-door  life,  is  really  happier  than  the  rich  man  in 
his  palace  with  the  gout  to  twinge  him  amid  his 
pleasures.  The  day  has  gone  by  when  delicacy  is 
considered  an  element  of  beauty.  Weakness  is 
timid  and  irresolute ;  strength  is  full  of  force  and 
energy.  Weakness  walks  or  creeps  ;  strength  speeds 
the  race,  wins  the  goal,  and  rejoices  in  the  victory. 

False  Ideas  of  Disease. — It  was  formerly  supposed 
that  diseases  were  caused  by  evil  spirits,  who  en- 
tered the  body  and  deranged  its  action.  Incanta- 
tions, spells,  etc. ,  were  resorted  to  in  order  to  drive 
them  out.  By  others,  disease  was  thought  to  come 
arbitrarily,  or  as  a  special  visitation  of  an  over-ruling 
power.  Hence,  it  was  to  be  removed  by  fasting  and 
prayer.  Modern  science  teaches  us  that  disease  is 
not  a  thing,  but  a  state.  When  our  food  is  properly 
assimilated,  the  waste  matter  promptly  excreted, 
and  all  the  organs  work  in  harmonv,  we  are  well ; 


156  CONCLUSION. 

when  any  derangement  of  these  functions  occurs, 
we  are  sick.  Sickness  is  discord,  as  health  is  con- 
cord. If  we  abuse  or  misuse  any  instrument,  we 
impair  its  ability  to  produce  a  perfect  harmony.  A 
suffering  body  is  simply  the  penalty  of  violated 
law. 

Prevention  of  Disease. — Doubtless  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  ills  which  now  afflict  and  rob  us  of  so 
much  time  and  pleasure  might  easily  be  avoided.  A 
proper  knowledge  and  observance  of  hygienic  laws 
would  greatly  lessen  the  number  of  such  diseases  as 
consumption,  catarrh,  gout,  rheumatism,  dyspepsia, 
scrofula,  etc.  There  are  parts  of  England  where 
one-half  the  children  die  before  they  are  five  years 
old.  Every  physiologist  knows  that  at  least  nine- 
tenths  of  these  lives  could  be  saved  by  an  observance 
of  the  simple  laws  of  health.  Professor  Bennet,  in  a 
lecture  at  Edinburgh,  estimated  that  100,000  persons 
die  annually  in  Great  Britain  from  causes  easily 
preventable. 

With  the  advance  of  science,  the  causes  of  many 
diseases  have  been  determined.  Vaccination  has 
been  found  to  prevent  or  mitigate  the  ravages  of 
small-pox.  Scurvy,  formerly  so  fatal  among  sailors 
that  it  was  deemed  "  a  mysterious  infliction  of 
Divine  Justice  against  which  man  strives  in  vain," 
is  now  entirely  avoided  by  the  use  of  vegetables  or 
lime-juice.  Cholera,  whose  approach  still  strikes 
dread,  and  for  which  there  is  no  known  specific,  is 
but  the  penalty  for  filthy  streets,  bad  drainage,  and 
over-crowded  tenements,  and  may  be  controlled,  if 
not  prevented,  by  suitable  sanitary  measures.  It 
was,  no  doubt,  the  intention  that  we  should  wear  out 


CURE  OF  DISEASE.  157 

by  the  general  decay  of  all  the  organs,*  rather  than 
by  the  giving  out  of  any  single  part,  and  that  all 
should  work  together  harmoniously  until  the  vital 
force  is  exhausted. 

Cure  of  Disease. — The  first  step  in  the  cure  of  any 
disease  is  to  obey  the  law  of  health  which  has  been 
violated.  If  medicine  be  taken,  it  is  not  to  destroy 
the  disease,  since  that  is  not  a  thing  to  be  destroyed, 
but  to  hold  the  deranged  action  in  check  while  na- 
ture repairs  the  injury,  and  again  brings  the  system 
into  harmonious  movement.  This  tendency  of  na- 
ture is  our  chief  reliance.  The  best  physicians  are 
coming  to  have  diminished  confidence  in  medicine 
itself,  and  to  place  greater  dependence  upon  sanitary 
and  hygienic  measures,  and  the  efforts  which  nature 
always  makes  to  repair  injuries  and  soothe  dis- 
ordered action.  They  endeavor  only  to  give  her  a 
fair  chance,  and  sometimes  to  assist  her  by  the  in- 
telligent employment  of  proper  medicines.  The  in- 
discriminate use  of  patent  nostrums  and  sovereign 
remedies  of  whose  constituents  we  know  nothing, 
and  by  which  powerful  drugs  are  imbibed  at  hap- 
hazard, cannot  be  too  greatly  deprecated,  f  When 

*  "  So  long  as  the  phenomena  of  waste  and  repair  are  in  harmony— so  long,  in 
other  words,  as  the  builder  follows  the  scavenger— so  long  man  exists  in  integrity 
and  repair — just,  indeed,  as  houses  exist.  Derange  nutrition,  and  at  once  degenera- 
tion, or  rather  let  us  say,  alteration  begins.  Alas  !  that  we  are  so  ignorant  that  there 
are  many  things  about  our  house,  which,  seeing  them  weaken,  we  know  not  how  to 
strengthen.  About  the  brick  and  the  mortar,  the  frame  and  the  rafters,  we  are  not 
unlearned ;  but  within  are  many  complexities,  many  chinks  and  crannies,  full  in 
themselves  of  secondary  chinks  and  crannies,  and  these  so  small,  so  deep,  so  re- 
cessed, that  it  happens  every  day  that  the  destroyer  settles  himself,  in  some  place  so 
obscure,  that,  while  he  kills,  he  laughs  at  defiance.  You  or  I  meet  with  an  accident 
in  our  watch.  We  consult  the  watchmaker,  and  he  repairs  the  injury.  If  we  were 
all  that  watchmakers,  like  ourselves,  should  be,  a  man  could  be  made  to  keep  time 
until  he  died  from  old  age  or  annihilating  accident.  This  I  firmly  and  fully  believe." 
—Odd  Hours  of  a  Physician. 

t  A  traveler  in  Africa  states  that  he  was  surprised  and  delighted  to  find  in  the 


158  CONCLUSION. 

one  needs  medicine,  he  needs  also  a  competent  phy- 
sician to  advise  its  use. 

Death  and.  Decay. — By  a  mystery  we  cannot  under- 
stand, life  is  linked  with  death,  and  out  of  the  decay 
of  our  bodies  they,  day  by  day,  spring  afresh.  At 
last  the  vital  force  which  has  held  death  and  decay 
in  bondage,  and  compelled  them  to  minister  to  our 
growth,  and  serve  the  needs  of  our  life,  faints  and 
yields  the  struggle.  These  powers  which  have  so 
long  time  been  our  servants,  gather  about  our  dying 
couch,  and  their  last  offices  usher  us  into  the  new 
life  and  the  grander  possibilities  of  the  world  to 
come.  This  last  birth,  we  who  see  the  fading,  not 
the  dawning,  life,  call  death. 

'«  O  Father!  grant  Thy  love  divine, 
To  make  these  mystic  temples  Thine, 
When  wasting  age  and  wearying  strife 
Have  sapp'd  the  leaning  walls  of  life  ; 
When  darkness  gathers  over  all, 
And  the  last  tottering  pillars  fall, 
Take  the  poor  dust  Thy  mercy  warms, 
And  mold  it  into  heavenly  forms." 

Holmes. 


possession  of  the  chief  medicine  man  of  one  of  the  interior  tribes  a  carefully  pre- 
served copy  of  the  New  York  Tribune.  On  inquiry,  he  found  that  it  was  exceedingly 
valuable,  as  a  minute  fragment  of  it  either  rubbed  on  the  outside  or  taken  inwardly 
was  a  sovereign  remedy  for  as  long  a  list  of  diseases  as  ever  graced  the  advertisement 
of  an  American  pain-killer.  The  mania  which  pome  people  possess  for  tippling  with 
patent  medicines  is  no  more  sensible  than  the  trust  of  the  poor  savage  in  a  New  York 
daily. 


HINTS 

ABOUT 

THE     SICK-ROOM 


A  SICK-ROOM  should  be  the  lightest  and  cheeriest  in  the  house. 
A  small,  close,  dark  bedroom  or  a  recess  is  bad  enough  for  one 
in  health,  but  unendurable  for  a  sick  person.  In  a  case  of  fever,  and 
in  many  acute  diseases,  it  should  be  remote  from  the  noise  of  the 
family;  but  when  one  is  recovering  from  an  accident,  and  in  all 
attacks  where  quiet  is  not  needed,  the  patient  may  be  where  he  can 
amuse  himself  by  watching  the  movements  of  the  household,  or  look- 
ing out  upon  the  street. 

l^he  ventilation  mtist  be  thorough.  Bad  air  will  poison  the  sick  and 
the  well  alike.  A  fireplace  is,  therefore,  desirable.  Windows  should 
open  easily.  By  carefully  protecting  the  patient  with  extra  blankets, 
the  room  may  be  frequently  aired.  If  there  be  no  direct  draught,  much 
may  be  done  to  change  the  air,  by  simply  swinging  an  outer  door  to 
and  fro  many  times. 

A  bare  floor,  with  strips  of  carpet  here  and  there  to  deaden  noise,  is 
cleanest,  and  keeps  the  air  freest  from  dust.  Cane-bottomed  chairs 
are  preferable  to  upholstered  ones.  All  unnecessary  furniture  should 
be  removed  out  of  the  way.  A  straw  bed  or  a  mattress  is  better  than 
feathers.  The  bed-hangings,  lace  curtains,  etc.,  should  be  taken  down. 
Creaking  hinges  should  be  oiled.  Sperm  candles  are  better  than 
kerosene  lamps. 

Never  whisper  in  a  sick-room.  All  necessary  conversation  should  be 
carried  on  in  the  usual  tone  of  voice.  Do  not  call  a  physician 
unnecessarily,  but  if  one  be  employed  obey  his  directions  implicitly. 


160  WHAT  TO  DO 

Never  give  nostrums  over-officious  friends  may  suggest.  Do  not 
allow  visitors  to  see  the  patient,  except  it  be  necessary.  Never  bustle 
about  the  room,  nor  go  on  tip-toe,  but  move  in  a  quiet,  ordinary  way. 
Do  not  keep  the  bottles  in  the  continued  sight  of  the  sick  person. 
Never  let  drinking-water  stand  in  the  room. 

Do  not  raise  the  patient's  head  to  drink,  but  have  a  cup  with  a  long 
spout,  or  use  a  bent  tube,  or  even  a  straw.  Do  not  tempt  the  appe- 
tite when  it  craves  no  food.  Bathe  frequently,  but  let  the  physician 
prescribe  the  method.  Give  written  directions  to  the  watchers.  Have 
all  medicines  carefully  marked.  Remove  all  soiled  clothing,  etc.,  at 
once  from  the  room.  Change  the  linen  much  oftener  than  in  health. 
When  you  wish  to  change  the  sheets,  and  the  patient  is  unable  to  rise, 
roll  the  under  sheet  tightly  lengthwise  to  the  middle  of  the  bed  ;  put 
on  the  clean  sheet,  with  half  its  width  folded  up,  closely  to  the  other 
roll  ;  lift  the  patient  on  to  the  newly-made  part,  remove  the  soiled 
sheet,  and  then  spread  out  the  clean  one. 


DISINFECTANTS. 

An  excellent  disinfectant  may  be  made  by  dissolving  in  a  pail  of 
water  either  of  the  following :  (i),  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  sulphate  of 
zinc  and  two  ounces  of  common  salt,  for  each  gallon  of  water  ;  (2),  a 
pound  and  a  half  of  copperas,  for  each  gallon  of  water.  Towels,  bed- 
linen,  handkerchiefs,  etc.,  should  be  soaked  at  least  an  hour,  in  a 
solution  of  the  first  kind,  and  then  be  boiled,  before  washing.  Vaults, 
drains,  vessels  used  in  the  sick-room,  etc.,  should  be  disinfected  by  a 
solution  of  the  second  kind  ;  chloride  of  lime  may  also  be  used  for  the 
same  purpose.  Rooms,  furniture,  and  articles  that  cannot  be  treated 
with  the  solution  of  the  first  kind,  should  be  thoroughly  fumigated  with 
burning  sulphur. 

WHAT    TO     DO    TILL     THE    DOCTOR 
COMES. 

Burns* — When  a  person's  clothes  catch  fire,  quickly  lay  him  on  the 
ground,  wrap  him  in  a  coat,  mat,  shawl,  carpet,  or  in  his  own  clothes, 
as  best  you  can  to  extinguish  the  fire.  Pour  ^on  plenty  of  water  till 
the  half-burned  clothing  is  cooled.  Then  carry  the  sufferer  to  a  warm 


TILL  THE  DOCTOR  COMES.  161 

room,  lay  him  on  a  table  or  a  carpeted  floor,  and  with  a  sharp  knife  or 
scissors  remove  his  clothing. 

The  treatment  of  a  burn  consists  in  protecting  from  the  air.*  An 
excellent  remedy  is  to  apply  soft  cloths  kept  wet  with  sweet  oil,  or 
cold  water  -which  contains  all  the  "  cooking  soda "  that  it  -will  dissolve. 
Afterward  dress  the  wound  with  carbolic  acid  salve.  Wrap  a  dry 
bandage  upon  the  outside.  Then  remove  the  patient  to  a  bed  and 
warmly  cover.f  Apply  cold  water  to  a  small  burn  till  the  smart 
ceases,  and  then  cover  with  ointment..  Do  not  remove  the  dressings 
until  they  become  stiff  and  irritating ;  then  take  them  from  a  part  at  a 
time  ;  dress  and  cover  again  quickly. 

Cuts,  Wounds,  etc, — The  method  of  stopping  the  bleeding  has 
been  described  on  page  79.  If  an  artery  is  severed,  a  physician 
should  be  called  at  once.  If  the  bleeding  is  not  profuse,  apply  cold 
water  until  it  ceases,  dry  the  skin,  draw  the  edges  of  the  wound  to- 
gether, and  secure  them  by  strips  of  adhesive  plaster.  Protect  with 
an  outer  bandage.  This  dressing  should  remain  for  several  days.  In 
the  meantime  wet  it  frequently  with  cold  water  to  subdue  inflamma- 
tion. When  suppuration  begins,  wash  occasionally  with  tepid  water 
and  Castile  soap. 

Dr.  Woodbridge,  of  New  York,  in  a  recent  address,  gave  the  follow- 
ing directions  as  to  "  What  to  do  in  case  of  a  sudden  wound  when  the 
surgeon  is  not  at  hand."  "  An  experienced  person  would  naturally 
close  the  lips  of  the  wound  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  apply  a  band- 
age. If  the  wound  is  bleeding  freely,  but  no  artery  is  spouting  blood, 
the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  wash  it  with  water  at  an  ordinary  tem- 
perature. To  every  pint  of  water  add  either  five  grains  of  corrosive 
sublimate,  or  two  and  a  half  teaspoonfuls  of  carbolic  acid.  If  the  acid 
is  used,  add  two  table-spoonfuls  of  glycerine,  to  prevent  its  irritating 
the  wound.  If  there  is  neither  of  these  articles  in  the  house,  add  four 
table-spoonfuls  of  borax  to  the  water.  Wash  the  wound,  close  it,  and 
apply  a  compress  of  a  folded  square  of  cotton  or  linen.  Wet  it  in  the 

*  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  suppose  that  salves  wfll  "  draw  out  the  fire  "  of  a  bum, 
or  heal  a  bruise  or  cut.  The  vital  force  must  unite  the  divided  tissue  by  the  deposit 
of  material,  and  the  formation  of  new  cells. 

t  If  a  burn  be  near  a  joint  or  on  the  face,  even  if  small,  let  a  doctor  see  it,  and  do 
not  be  in  any  hurry  about  having  it  healed.  Remember  that  with  all  the  care  and 
skill  which  can  be  used,  contractions  will  sometimes  take  place.  The  danger  to  life 
from  a  burn  or  scald  is  not  in  proportion  to  its  severity,  but  to  its  extent— that  isy  a 
small  part,  such  as  a  hand  or  a  foot  or  a  face,  may  be  burned  so  deeply  as  to  cripple  it 
for  life,  and  yet  not  much  endanger  the  general  health ;  but  a  slight  amount  of  burn- 
ing, a  mere  scorching,  over  two-thirds  of  the  body,  may  prove  fatal.— Hofc. 


102  WHAT   TO  DO 

solution  used  for  washing  the  wound,  and  bandage  down  quickly  and 
firmly.  If  the  bleeding  is  profuse,  a  sponge  dipped  in  very  hot  water 
and  wrung  out  in  a  dry  cloth  should  be  applied  as  quickly  as  possible. 
If  this  is  not  available,  use  ice,  or  cloths  wrung  out  in  ice  water.  If  a 
large  vein  or  artery  is  spouting,  it  must  be  stopped  at  once  by  com- 
pression. This  may  be  done  by  a  rubber  tube  wound  around  the  arm 
tightly  above  the  elbow  or  above  the  knee,  where  the  pulse  is  felt  to 
beat;  or  an  improvised  'tourniquet'  maybe  used.  A  hard  apple  or 
a  stone  is  placed  in  a  folded  handkerchief,  and  rolled  firmly  in  place. 
This  bandage  is  applied  so  that  the  hard  object  rests  on  the  point 
where  the  artery  beats,  and  is  then  tied  loosely  around  the  arm.  A 
stick  is  thrust  through  the  loose  bandage  and  turned  till  the  flow  of 
blood  ceases." 

Bleeding  from  the  Nose  is  rarely  dangerous,  and  often  beneficial. 
When  it  becomes  necessary  to  stop  it,  sit  upright  and  compress  the 
'nostrils  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger,  or  with  the  thumb  press 
upward  upon  the  upper  lip.  A  piece  of  ice,  a  snow-ball,  or  a  com- 
press wet  with  cold  water  may  be  applied  to  the  back  of  the  neck. 

A  Sprain  is  often  more  painful  and  dangerous  than  a  dislocation. 
Wrap  the  injured  part  in  flannels  wrung  out  of  hot  water,  and  cover 
with  a  dry  bandage,  or,  better,  with  oiled  silk.  Liniments  and  stimu- 
lating applications  are  injurious  in  the  first  stages,  but  useful  when 
the  inflammation  is  subdued.  Do  not  let  the  limb  hang  down.  It  must 
be  kept  quiet,  even  after  all  pain  has  ceased.  If  used  too  quickly, 
dangerous  consequences  may  ensue. 

Diarrhea,  Cholera  Infantum,  etc.,  are  often  caused  by  eating 
indigestible  food  or  by  checking  of  the  perspiration ;  but  more  fre- 
quently by  peculiar  conditions  of  the  atmosphere,  especially  in  large 
cities.  If  the  limbs  are  cold,  give  a  hot  bath,  and  rub  thoroughly. 
If  possible,  go  to  bed  and  lie  quietly  on  the  back.  Rest  is  better  than  medi- 
cine. If  there  be  pain,  apply  repeatedly  to  the  abdomen  flannels 
wrung  out  of  hot  water.  If  medicine  is  needed,  take  fifteen  drops  of 
peppermint  and  thirty  of  paregoric  in  a  wine-glass  of  warm  water ;  or 
an  adult  may  take  twenty  drops  of  spirits  of  camphor  and  thirty  to 
forty  drops  of  laudanum.  Laudanum  should  rarely  be  given  to  an 
infant,  except  by  a  physician's  order.  Eat  no  fruit,  vegetables,  pastry, 
or  pork.  If  much  thirst  exist,  give  small  pieces  of  ice,  or  cold  tea  or 
toast-water. 

Croup.— Send  at  once  for  a  doctor.  Induce  vomiting  by  syrup  of 
ipecac  or  mustard  and  water.  Put  the  feet  in  a  hot  bath.  Apply  hot 
fomentations  rapidly  renewed  to  the  chest  and  throat. 


TILL  THE  DOCTOR  COMES.  163 

Sore  Throat. — Wrap  the  neck  in  a  wet  bandage,  and  cover  with 
red  flannel  or  a  woolen  stocking.  Gargle  the  throat  frequently  with 
a  solution  of  a  tea-spoonful  of  salt  in  a  pint  of  water,  or  thirty  grains 
of  chlorate  of  potash  in  a  wine-glass  of  water. 

Fits,  Apoplexy,  Epilepsy,  etc,— Loosen  the  clothing,  and  raise 
the  head  and  shoulders,  but  do  not  bend  the  head  forward  on  the 
neck.  Apply  cold  to  the  head,  and  heat  to  the  feet.  Follow  with  an 
emetic.  In  a  child,  a  full  hot  bath  is  excellent.  When  there  are  con- 
vulsions, prevent  the  patient  from  injuring  himself;  especially  put 
something  in  his  mouth  to  keep  him  from  biting  his  tongue. 

Toothache  and  Earache. — Insert  in  the  hollow  tooth,  or  in  the 
ear,  cotton  wet  with  laudanum,  spirits  of  camphor,  or  chloroform. 
When  the  nerve  is  exposed,  wet  it  with  creosote  or  carbolic  acid. 
Hot  cloths  or  a  hot  brick  wrapped  in  cloth  and  held  to  the  face  will 
often  relieve  the  toothache.  In  a  similar  manner  treat  the  ear,  wetting 
the  cloth  in  hot  water,  and  letting  the  vapor  pass  into  the  ear. 

Choking.— Ordinarily  a  smart  blow  between  the  shoulders,  causing 
a  compression  of  the  chest  and  a  sudden  expulsion  of  the  air  from  the 
lungs,  will  throw  out  the  substance.  If  the  person  can  swallow,  and 
the  object  be  small,  give  plenty  of  bread  or  potato,  and  water  to  wash 
it  down.  Press  upon  the  tongue  with  a  spoon,  when,  perhaps,  you 
may  see  the  offending  body,  and  draw  it  out  with  a  blunt  pair  of  scis- 
sors. If  neither  of  these  remedies  avail,  give  an  emetic  of  syrup  of 
ipecac  or  mustard  and  warm  water. 

Frost  Bites  are  frequently  so  sudden  that  one  is  not  aware  when 
they  occur.  In  Canada  it  is  not  uncommon  for  persons  meeting  in 
the  street  to  say,  "  Mind,  sir,  your  nose  looks  whitish."  The  blood 
cools  and  runs  slowly,  and  the  blood-vessels  become  choked  and 
swollen.  Keep  from  the  heat.  Rub  the  part  quickly  with  snow,  if 
necessary  for  hours,  till  the  natural  color  is  restored.  If  one  is 
benumbed  with  cold,  take  him  into  a  cold  room,  remove  the  wet 
clothes,  rub  the  body  dry,  cover  with  blankets,  and  give  a  little  warm 
tea  or  \\  eak  brandy  and  water.  On  recovering,  let  him  be  brought  to 
a  fire  gradually.* 

Fevers,  and  many  acute  diseases,  are  often  preceded  by  a  loss  of 
appetite,  headache,  shivering,  "pains  in  the  bones,"  indisposition  to 

*  If  you  are  caught  in  a  snow-storm,  look  for  a  snow-bank  in  the  lee  of  a  hill,  or 
a  wood  out  of  the  wind,  or  a  hollow  in  the  plain  filled  with  snow.  Scrape  out  a 
hole  big  enough  to  creep  into,  and  the  drifting  snow  will  keep  you  warm.  Men  and 
animals  have  been  preserved  after  days  of  such  imprisonment  Remember  that  if 
you  give  way  to  sleep  in  the  open  field,  you  will  never  awake. 


164  WHAT   TO  DO 

work,  etc.  In  such  cases,  sponge  with  tepid  water,  and  rub  the  body 
till  all  aglow.  Go  to  bed,  place  hot  bricks  to  the  feet,  take  nothing 
but  a  little  gruel  or  beef  tea,  and  drink  moderately  of  warm,  cream-of- 
tartar  water.  If  you  do  not  feel  better  the  next  morning,  call  a  phy- 
sician. If  that  be  impossible,  take  a  dose  of  castor-oil  or  Epsom  salt. 

Sun-stroke  is  a  sudden  prostration  caused  by  intense  heat.  The 
same  effect  is  produced  by  the  burning  rays  of  the  sun  and  the  fierce 
fire  of  a  furnace.  When  a  person  falls  under  such  circumstances, 
place  your  hand  on  his  chest.  If  the  skin  be  cool  and  moist,  it  is  not 
a  sun-stroke ;  but  if  it  be  dry  and  "  biting  hot,"  there  can  be  no  mis- 
take. Time  is  now  precious.  At  once  carry  the  sufferer  to  the  nearest 
pump  or  hydrant,  and  dash  cold  water  on  the  head  and  chest  until 
consciousness  is  restored. — Dr.  H.  C.  Wood. 

To  prevent  sun-stroke,  wear  a  porous  hat,  and  in  the  top  of  it  place 
a  wet  handkerchief ;  also  drink  freely  of  water,  not  ice  cold,  to  induce 
abundant  perspiration. 

Asphyxia,  or  apparent  death,  whether  produced  by  drowning,  suf- 
focation, bad  air,  or  coal  gas,  requires  very  similar  treatment.  Send 
at  once  for  blankets,  dry  clothing,  and  a  physician.  Treat  the  sufferer 
upon  the  spot,  if  the  weather  be  not  too  unfavorable. 

1.  Loosen  the  clothing  about  the  neck  and  chest. 

2.  Turn  the  patient   on   his  face,  open   the   mouth,  draw   out   the 
tongue,  and  cleanse  the  nostrils,  so  as  to  clear  the  air-passages. 

3.  Place  the  patient  on  his  back,  grasp  his  arms  firmly  above  the 
elbows,  and  pull  them  gently  upward  until  they  meet  over  the  head,  in 
order  to  draw  air  into  the  lungs.    Then  bring  the  arms  back  by  the  side, 
to  expel  the  air.     Repeat  the  process  about  fifteen  times  per  minute. 
Alternate  pressure  upon  the  chest,  and  blowing  air  into  the  mouth 
through  a  quill  or  with  a  pair  of  bellows,  may  aid  your  efforts.     Excite 
the  nostrils  with  snuff  or  smelling  salts,  or  by  passing  hartshorn  under 
the  nose.     Do  not  cease  effort  while  there  is  hope.     Life  has  been 
restored  after  five  hours  of  suspended  animation. 

4.  When  respiration  is  established,  wrap  the  patient  in  dry,  warm 
clothes,  and  rub  the  limbs  under  the  blankets  or  over  the  dry  clothing 
energetically  toward  the  heart.     Apply  heated  flannels,  bottles  of  hot 
water,  etc.,  to  the  limbs,  and  mustard  plasters*  to  the  chest. 

Foreign  Bodies  in  the  Ear- — Insects  may  be  killed  by  dropping 
a  little  sweet  oil  into  the  ear.  Beans,  peas,  matches,  etc.,  may  gener- 

*  The  best  mustard  poultice  is  the  paper  plaster  now  sold  by  every  druggist.  It 
is  always  ready,  and  can  be  carried  by  a  traveler.  It  has  only  to  be  dipped  in 
water,  and  applied  at  once. 


TILL  THE  DOCTOR  COMES.  165 

ally  be  removed  by  cautiously  syringing  the  ear  out  with  tepid  water. 
Do  not  use  much  force  lest  the  tympanum  be  injured.  If  this  fail,  dry 
the  ear,  stick  the  end  of  a  fittle  linen  swab  into  thick  glue,  let  the 
patient  lie  on  one  side,  put  this  into  the  ear  until  it  touches  the  sub- 
stance, keep  it  there  three-quarters  of  an  hour  while  it  hardens,  and 
then  draw  them  all  out  together.  Be  careful  that  the  glue  does  not  touch 
the  skin  at  any  point,  and  that  you  are  at  work  upon  the  right  ear 
Children  often  deceive  one  as  to  the  ear  which  is  affected. 

Foreign  Bodies  in  the  Nose,  such  as  beans,  cherry-pits,  etc., 
may  be  frequently  removed  by  closing  the  opposite  nostril,  and  then 
blowing  into  the  child's  mouth  forcibly.  The  air.  unable  to  escape 
except  through  the  other  nostril,  will  sweep  the  obstruction  before  it. 


166  ANTIDOTES  TO  POISONS. 

ANTIDOTES    TO     POISONS. 

Acids  :  Nitric  (aqur.  fortis),  hydrochloric  (muriatic),  sulphuric  (oil  of 
vitriol),  oxalic,  etc. — Drink  a  little  water  to  weaken  the  acid,  or,  still 
better,  take  strong  soap-suds.  Stir  some  magnesia  in  water,  and 
drink  freely.  If  the  magnesia  be  not  at  hand,  use  chalk,  soda,  lime, 
whiting,  soap,  or  even  knock  a  piece  of  plaster  from  the  wall,  and 
scraping  off  the  white  outside  coat  pound  it  fine,  mix  with  milk  or 
water,  and  drink  at  once.  Follow  with  warm  water,  or  flax-seed  tea. 

Alkalies :  Potash,  soda,  ley,  ammonia  (hartshorn). — Drink  weak  vin- 
egar or  lemon  juice.  Follow  with  castor  or  linseed  oil,  or  thick 
cream. 

Antimony  '•  Antimonial  Wine,  tartar  emetic,  etc. — Drink  strong, 
green  tea,  and  in  the  mean  time  chew  the  dry  leaves.  The  direct  anti- 
dote is  a  solution  of  nut-gall  or  oak-bark. 

Arsenic  :  Cobalt,  Scheele's  green,  fly-powder,  ratsbane,  etc. — Give  plenty 
of  milk,  whites  of  eggs,  or  induce  vomiting  by  mustard  and  warm 
water,  or  even  soap-suds. 

Bite  of  a  Snake  or  a  Mad  Dog. — Tie  a  bandage  above  the 
wound,  if  on  a  limb.  Wash  the  bite  thoroughly,  and,  if  possible,  let  the 
person  suck  it  strongly.  Rub  some  lunar  caustic  or  potash  in  the 
wound,  or  heat  the  point  of  a  small  poker  or  a  steel-sharpener  white 
hot,  and  press  it  into  the  bite  for  a  moment.  It  will  scarcely  cause 
pain,  and  will  be  effectual  in  arresting  the  absorption  of  the  poison, 
unless  a  vein  has  been  struck. 

Copper  :  Sulphate  of  copper  (blue  vitriol),  acetate  of  copper  (verdigris). 
— Take  whites  of  eggs  or  soda.  Use  milk  freely. 

Laudanum  •  Opium,  paregoric,  soothing  cordial,  soothing  syrup,  etc. — 
Give  an  emetic  at  once  of  syrup  of  ipecac,  or  mustard  and  warm 
water,  etc.  After  vomiting,  use  strong  coffee  freely.  Keep  the  patient 
awake  by  pinching,  pulling  the  hair,  walking  about,  dashing  water  in 
the  face,  and  any  expedient  possible. 

Lead:  White  lead,  acetate  of  lead  (sugar  of  lead),  red  lead.  Give  an 
emetic  of  syrup  of  ipecac,  or  mustard  and  warm  water,  or  salt  and 
water.  Follow  with  a  dose  of  Epsom  salt. 

Matches :  Phosphorus. — Give  magnesia,  chalk,  whiting,  or  even 
flour  in  water,  and  follow  with  mucilaginous  drinks. 

Mercury ;  Calomel,  chloride  of  mercury  (corrosive  sublimate,  bug 
poison),  red  precipitate. — Drink  milk  copiously.  Take  the  whites  of 
eggs,  or  even  stir  flour  in  water,  and  use  freely. 


ANTIDOTES.  167 

Nitrate  of  Silver  (lunar  caustic). — Give  salt  and  water,  and  follow 
with  castor-oil. 

Nitrate  of  Potash  (saltpetre,  nitre). — Give  mustard  and  warm 
water,  or  syrup  of  ipecac.  Follow  with  flour  and  water,  and  cream  or 
sweet  oil. 

PrilSSic  Acid  (oil  of  bitter  almonds),  cyanide  of  potassium. — Take  a 
tea-spoonful  of  hartshorn  in  a  pint  of  water.  Apply  smelling  salts  to 
the  nose,  and  dash  cold  water  in  the  face. 

Sting  of  an  Insect. — Apply  a  little  hartshorn  or  spirits  of  cam- 
phor, or  soda  moistened  with  water,  or  a  paste  of  clean  earth  and 
saliva. 

Sulphate  of  Iron  (green  vitriol). — Give  syrup  of  ipecac,  or  mus- 
tard and  warm  water,  or  any  convenient  emetic ;  then  magnesia  and 
water. 


QUESTIONS    FOR    CLASS  USE 


The  questions  include  the  notes.      The  figures  refer  to  the  pages. 


INTRODUCTION. 

ILLUSTRATE  the  value  of  physiological  knowledge.  Why  should 
physiology  be  studied  in  youth?  When  are  our  habits  formed?  How 
do  habits  help  us  ?  Why  should  children  prize  the  lessons  of  expe- 
rience. How  does  Nature  punish  a  violation  of  her  laws?  Name 
some  of  Nature's  laws.  What  is  the  penalty  of  their  violation?  Name 
some  bad  habits  and  their  punishments.  Some  good  habits  and  their 
rewards.  How  do  the  young  ruin  their  health?  Compare  one's  con- 
stitution with  a  deposit  in  the  bank.  Can  one  in  youth  lay  up  health 
as  he  can  money  for  middle  or  old  age  ?  Is  not  the  preservation  of 
one's  health  a  moral  duty?  What  is  suicide  ? 


THE     SKELETON. 

How  many  bones  are  there  in  the  body?  Is  the  number  fixed? 
What  is  an  organ?  (See  Glossary.)  A  function?  Name  the  three 
uses  of  the  bones.  Why  do  the  bones  have  such  different  shapes? 
Why  are  certain  bones  hollow  ?  Round  ?  Illustrate.  Why  are  iron 
pillars  in  stores  cast  hollow?  What  is  the  composition  of  bone?  How 
does  it  vary  ? 

12.  How  can  you  remove  the  mineral  matter  ?  The  animal  mat- 
ter? Why  is  a  burned  bone  white  and  porous?  What  is  the  use  of 
each  of  the  constituents  of  a  bone?  What  food  do  dogs  find  in  bones? 
What  is  ossification  ?  Why  are  not  the  bones  of  children  as  easily 
broken  as  those  of  aged  persons?  Why  do  they  unite  so  much 


THE  SKELETON.  169 

quicker  ?     Describe  the  structure  of  a  bone.     What  is  the  object  of 
the  filling?     Why  does  the  amount  vary  in  different  parts  of  a  bone  ? 

13.  What  is  the  appearance  of  a  bone  seen  through  a  microscope  ? 
How  do  bones  grow?     Illustrate.     How  does  a  broken  bone  heal? 
How  rapidly  is  bone  produced?     Illustrate.      What  is  the  object  of 
"splints"?    Describe  how  a  joint  is  packed.     Lubricated.     How  are 
the  bones  tied  together ?   What  is  a  tissue ?   (See  Glossary.)    Illustrate. 

14.  Name  the  three  general  divisions  of  the  bones.     What  is  the 
object  of  the  skull  ?     Which  bone  is  movable  ?    How  is  the  lower  jaw 
hinged  ?     Describe  the  construction  of  the  skull.     What  is  a  suture?  \^ 

15.  Tell  how  the  peculiar  form  and  structure  of  the  skull  adapt  it  for 
its  use.     What  two  cavities  are  in   the  trunk  ?      Name  its  principal 
bones.     Describe  the  spine.     What  is  the  object  of  the  projections? 
Of  the  pads?     Why  is  a  man  shorter  at  night  than  in  the  morning? 

16.  Describe  the  perfection  of  the  spine.     The    articulation    (see 
Glossary)  of  the  skull  with  the  spine. 

17.  Describe  the  ribs.     What  is  the  natural  form  of  the  chest?     Why 
is  the  thorax,  or  chest,  made  in  separate  pieces  ?   How  does  the  oblique 
position  of  the  ribs  aid  in  respiration?     (See  p.  53.) 

18.  How  do  the  hipbones  give  solidity?    What  two  sets  of  limbs 
branch  from  the  trunk?     State  their  mutual  resemblance. 

19.  Name   the  bones   of  the   shoulder.     Describe  the  collar-bone. 
The    shoulder-blade.      Name   the   bones   of  the   arm.      Describe  the 
shoulder-joint.     The  elbow  joint.     The  wrist. 

20.  Name  the  bones  of  the  hand  (see  p.  24).     The  fingers.     Describe 
their  articulations.     What  gives  the  thumb  its  freedom  of  motion  ?     In 
what  lies  the  perfection  of  the  hand  ? 

21.  Describe  the  hip-joint.     What  gives  the  upper  limbs  more  free- 
dom of  motion  than  the  lower?      Name  the  bones  of  the  lower  limbs. 
Describe  the  knee-joint.     The  patella.     What  is  the  use  of  the  fibula? 
Can  you  show  how  the  lower  extremity  of  the  fibula,  below  its  juncture 
with  the  tibia,  is  prolonged  to  form  a  part  of  the  ankle-joint? 

22.  Name  the  bones  of  the  foot.     What  is  the  use  of  the  arch  of  the 
foot  ?    What  makes  the  step  elastic  ?     Describe  the  action  of  the  foot 
as  we  step.     In  graceful  walking  should  the  toes  or  the  heel  touch  the 
ground  first  ?    What  are  the  causes  of  deformed  feet  ?     What  is  the 
natural  position  of  the  big  toe  ?     Did  you  ever  see  a  big  toe  lying  in  a 


170  QUESTIONS  FOR  CLASS  USE. 

straight  line  with  the  foot,  as  shown  in  statuary  and  paintings  ?  How 
should  we  have  our  boots  2.nd  shoes  made  ?  What  are  the  effects  of 
high  heels  ?  Of  narrow  heels  ?  Of  narrow  toes  ?  Of  tight-laced  boots? 
Of  thin  soles?  What  are  the  rickets?  Cause  of  this  disease?  Cure? 
Cause  of  bow-legs  ?  Cure  ? 

23.  What  is  the  correct  position  in  sitting  at  one's  desk?  Is  there 
any  necessity  for  walking  and  sitting  erect  ?  Describe  the  bad  effects 
of  a  stooping  position.  What  is  a  sprain?  Why  does  it  need  special 
care?  What  is  a  dislocation?  (See  Glossary.) 


THE     MUSCLES. 

25.  WHAT  is  the  use  of  the  skeleton?    How  is  it  concealed?    Why 
is  it  the  image  of  death?     What  are  the  muscles?     How  many  are 
there  ?     What  peculiar  property  have  they  ?     How  are  they  arranged  ? 
Where  is  the  biceps  ?    The  triceps  ?     How  do  the  muscles  move  the 
limbs?     Illustrate. 

26.  Name  and  define    the  two  kinds   of  muscles.     Illustrate  each. 
What  is  the  structure  of  a  muscle?     Of  what  is  a  fibril  itself  com- 
posed ? 

27-8.  Describe  the  tendons.  What  is  their  use?  Illustrate  the 
advantages  of  this  mode  of  attachment.  What  two  special  arrange- 
ments of  the  tendons  in  the  hand  ?  Their  use  ?  How  is  the  rotary 
motion  of  the  eye  obtained  ? 

29.  What  advantages  are  gained  by  the  enlargement  of  the  bones  at 
the  joints?     Illustrate.     How  do  we  stand  erect?     Is  it  an  involuntary 
act?     Why  cannot  a  child   walk  at  once,  as  many  young  animals  do? 
Why  can  we  not  hold  up  the  head   easily    when   we   walk   on   "all 
fours"?     Why  cannot  an  animal  stand  erect  as  man  does? 

30.  Describe  the  process  of  walking.     Show  that  walking  is  a  pro- 
cess of  falling.     Describe  the  process  of  running.     What  causes  the 
swinging  of  the  hand  in  walking?    Why  are  we  shorter  when  walk- 
ing?    Why  does  a  person  when  lost  often  go  in  a  circle?     In  which 
direction  does  one  always  turn  in  that  case  ?     WTiat  is  the  muscular 
sense?    Its  value? 


THE  SKIN.  171 

31-2.  Value  of  exercise  ?  Is  there  any  danger  of  violent  exercise  ? 
For  what  purpose  should  we  exercise  ?  Should  exercise  be  in  the 
open  air?  What  is  the  Law  of  Health  in  regard  to  exercise?  Is  a 
young  person  excusable,  who  leads  a  sedentary  life,  and  yet  takes 
no  daily  out-door  exercise  ?  What  will  be  nature's  penalty  for  such  a 
violation  of  her  law?  Will  a  postponement  of  the  penalty  show  that 
we  have  escaped  it?  Ought  a  scholar  to  study  during  the  time  of 
recess?  Will  a  promenade  in  the  vitiated  air  of  the  school-room  fur- 
nish suitable  exercise  ?  What  is  the  best  time  for  taking  exercise  ? 
Who  can  exercise  before  breakfast  ?  What  are  the  advantages  of  the 
different  kinds  of  exercise  ?  Should  we  not  walk  more  ?  What  is  the 
general  influence  upon  the  body  of  vigorous  exercise?  State  some  of 
the  wonders  of  the  muscles. 

33.  What  is  the  St.  Vitus's  dance?  Cure?  What  is  the  locked-jaw? 
Causes?  The  gout?  Cause?  Cure?  The  rheumatism?  Its  two 
forms?  Peculiarity  of  the  acute?  Danger?  Is  there  any  particular 
mode  of  treating  it  ? 


THE     SKIN. 

35.  WHAT  are  the  uses  of  the  skin  ?  Describe  its  adaptation  to  its 
place.  What  is  its  function  as  an  organ  ?  Describe  the  structure  of 
the  skin.  The  sensitiveness  of  the  cutis.  The  insensitiveness  of  the 
cuticle. 

46.  Flow  is  the  skin  constantly  changing?  The  shape  and  number 
of  the  cells  ?  Value  of  the  cuticle  ?  How  is  the  cuticle  formed  ?  What 
is  the  complexion?  Its  cause?  Why  is  a  scar  white?  What  is  the 
cause  of  "tanning  "?  What  are  freckles  ?  Describe  the  action  of  the 
sun  on  the  skin.  Why  are  hairs  and  the  nails  spoken  of  under  the 
head  of  the  skin  ? 

37.  Uses  of  the  hair ?  Its  structure ?  What  is  the  hair-bulb?  What 
is  it  called  ?  How  does  a  hair  grow  ?  When  can  it  be  restored,  if  de- 
stroyed ?  What  is  the  danger  of  hair-dyes?  Are  they  of  any  real 
value?  How  can  the  hair  stand  on  end?  How  do  horses  move  their 
skin?  Is  there  any  feeling  in  a  hair?  What  are  the  uses  of  the 
nails? 


172  QUESTIONS  FOR  CLASS   USE. 

38.  How  do  the  nails  grow?    What  is  the  mucous  membrane?    Its 
composition?      The   connective  tissue?     Why  so  called?     What  use 
does  it  subserve  ?     What  is  its  character  ? 

39.  Name  some  of  the  many  uses  of  the  membranes  in  the  body. 
How  does  the  fat  exist  in  the  body?     Its  uses?     Where  is  there  no 
fat?     Name  and  describe  the  four  kinds  of  teeth.     What  are  the  milk 
teeth?     Describe  them. 

41.  What  teeth  appear  first?     When  do  the  permanent  teeth  appear? 
Describe  their  growth.     Which  one  comes  first  ?     Last  ?     Describe  the 
structure  of  the  teeth. 

42.  Why  do  the   teeth  decay?    What  care  should  be  taken  of  the 
teeth?     What  caution  should  be  observed?    What  are  the  oil  glands? 
Use  of  this  secretion  ? 

43.  What  are  the  perspiratory  glands?     State  their  number.     Their 
total  length.     What  are  the  "  pores"  of  the  skin?     What  is  the  per- 
spiration?   What  is  the  constitution  of  the  perspiration  ?     Illustrate 
its  value.     Why  do  we  need  to  bathe  so  often? 

44.  When  is  the  best  time  for  a  bath  ?    Why  ?     Value  of  friction  ? 
Should  a  bath  be  taken  just  before  or  after  a  meal  ?   Is  soap  beneficial  ? 
What  is  the  "reaction"?     Explain  its  invigorating  influence.     How 
is  it  secured?    General  effect  of  a  cold  bath?     Of  a  warm  bath?    If 
we  feel  chilly  and  depressed  after  a  bath,  what  is  the  teaching? 

45.  Why  is  the  sea-bath  so  stimulating?      How   long   should   one 
remain  in  any  bath?    How  does  clothing  keep  us  warm?     Explain 
the  use  of  linen  as  an  article  of  clothing.     Cotton.     Woolen.     Flan- 
nel.    How  can  we  best  protect  ourselves  against  the  changes  of  our 
climate  ? 

46-7.  What  colored  clothing  is  best  adapted  for  all  seasons?  Value 
of  the  nap?  Furs?  Thick  vs.  thin  clothing?  Should  we  wear  thick 
clothing  during  the  day,  and  in  the  evening  put  on  thin  clothing? 
Can  children  endure  exposure  better  than  grown  persons  ?  What  are 
corns?  What  is  the  cause?  Cure?  What  are  in-growing  nails? 
What  is  the  cure  ?  Warts  ?  Cure  ?  Chilblain  ?  Cause  ?  Preventive  ? 


RESPIRATION  AND   THE  VOICE.  173 


RESPIRATION     AND    THE    VOICE 

49.  NAME  the  organs  of  respiration   and  the   voice.     Describe   the 
larynx.     The  epiglottis.     The  oesophagus.     What   is   meant   by  food 
"going  the  wrong  way  "  ? 

50.  Describe   the   vocal   cords.      Their   use.     How  is   sound   pro- 
duced ? 

51.  How  are  the  higher  tones  of  the  voice  produced  ?    The  lower? 
Upon  what  does  loudness  depend  ? 

52.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  voice  "charging"?     What  is  speech? 
Vocalization?     Could  a  person  talk   without  his  tongue?     How  is  a 
formed  by  the  voice  ?     Difference  between  a  sigh  and  a  groan  ?     What 
vowel  sounds  are  made  in  laughing?     Does  whistling  depend  on  the 
voice  ?     Tell  how  the  various  consonants  are  formed.     What  are  the 
labials?      The  dentals?    The   linguals?     What  vowels   does  a  child 
pronounce  first? 

53.  Describe  the  wind-pipe.     The  bronchi.     The  bronchial    tubes. 
Why  is  the  trachea  so  called  ?     Describe   the   structure  of  the  lungs. 
What  are  the  lungs  of  slaughtered  animals  called  ?     Why  will  a  piece 
of  the  lungs  float  on  water?      Name  the   wrappings   of  the   lungs. 
Describe  the  pleura.     How  is  friction  prevented  ?     What  are  the  cilia  ? 
What  is  their  use?    What  two  acts  constitute  respiration? 

54.  In  what  two  ways  may  the  position  of  the  ribs  change  the  capa- 
city of  the  chest  ?     Describe  the  process  of  respiration.     Expiration. 

55.  How  often  do  we  breathe?     Describe  the  diaphragm.     Its  use  in 
breathing.     What   is   coughing?      Sneezing?      Snoring?     Laughing? 
Crying  ?     Hiccough  ?     What  is  meant  by  the  breathing  capacity  ?     How 
does  it  vary?     How  much,  in  addition,  can  the  lungs  expel  forcibly? 
Can  we  expel  all  the  air  from  our  lungs?     Value  of  this  constant  sup- 
ply? 

56.  How  constant  is  the  need  of  air?     What  is  the  vital  element  of 
the  air  ?     Describe  the  action  of  the  oxygen  in  our  lungs.     What  does 
the  blood  give  up?     Gain  ?     How  can  this  be  tested  ?    What  are  the 
constituents  of  the  air?     What  are  the  peculiar  properties  and  uses  of 
each?     What  is  the  condition   of  the  air  we  exhale?     Which  is  the 
most  dangerous  constituent? 


174  QUESTIONS  FOR  CLASS  USE. 

57-63.  Describe  the  evil  effects  of  re-breathing  the  air.  Give  illus- 
trations of  the  dangers  of  bad  air.  What  is  meant  by  the  germs  of  dis- 
ease floating  in  the  air  ?  Describe  the  need  of  ventilation.  Will  a 
single  breath  pollute  the  air  ?  What  is  the  influence  of  a  fire  or  a 
light?  Of  a  hot  stove?  When  is  the  ventilation  perfect?  What  dis- 
eases are  largely  owing  to  bad  air?  Should  the  windows  and  doors 
of  any  room  be  tightly  closed,  if  we  have  no  other  means  of  ventila- 
tion? Is  not  a  draught  of  air  dangerous?  How  can  we  prevent  this, 
and  yet  secure  fresh  air  ?  What  is  the  general  principle  of  ventila- 
tion ?  Must  pure  air  necessarily  be  cold  air?  Are  school-rooms 
properly  ventilated?  What  is  the  effect?  Are  churches?  Are  our 
bed-rooms?  Can  we,  at  night,  breathe  anything  but  night  air?  Is 
the  night  air  out-of-doors  ever  injurious? 

63-5.  Describe  some  of  the  wonders  of  respiration.  How  is  con- 
striction of  the  lungs  produced?  When  may  clothing  be  considered 
tight  ?  What  are  the  dangers  of  tight-lacing  ?  Which  would  i  lake 
the  stronger,  more  vigorous,  and  longer-lived  person,  the  form  shown 
in  A  or  B,  Fig.  28?  Is  it  safe  to  run  any  risk  in  this  dangerous  direc- 
tion? What  is  the  bronchitis?  Pleurisy?  Pneumonia?  Consump- 
tion ?  What  is  one  great  cause  of  this  disease  ?  How  may  a  consti- 
tutional tendency  to  this  disease  be  warded  off  in  youth?  What  is 
asphyxia?  Describe  the  process  for  restoring  such  a  person.  (See 
Appendix?)  What  is  the  diphtheria?  Its  peculiarity?  Danger? 

66.  The  croup?  Its  characteristics?  Remedy?  (See  Appendix.} 
Cause  of  stammering  ?  How  cured  ? 


THE    CIRCULATION. 

67.  NAME   the    organs   of    the    circulation.     Does   the   blood    per- 
meate all   parts  of  the  body  ?     What  is  the  average  amount  in  each 
person?     Its  composition? 

68.  What  is  the  plasma?     Describe  the  red  cells  (corpuscles).     The 
white.       What  is  the  size  of  a  red   cell?      Are  the  shape  and  size 
uniform  ?     Are  the  disks  permanent?    What  substances  are  contained 


THE  CIRCULATION.  175 

in  the  plasma?  What  is  fibrin  ?  In  what  sense  is  the  blood  "liquid 
flesh"  ?  What  is  the  use  of  the  red  disks?  What  is  the  office  of  the 
oxygen  in  the  body  ?  Where  is  the  blood  purified  ? 

69.  What  is  the  cause  of  coagulation  of  the  blood  ?     Value  of  this 
property  ?     What  organ  propels  the  blood  ? 

70.  What  is  the  location  of  the  heart  ?     How  large  is  it  ?     Put  your 
hand  over  it.     What  is  the  pericardium  ?     How  many  chambers  in  the 
heart  ? 

71.  What  is  their  average  size?     What  is  meant  by  the  right  and 
the  left  heart  ?     What  are  the  auricles  ?     Why  so  called  ?     The  ventri- 
cles?    What  is  the  use  of  the  auricles?    The  ventricles?     Which  are 
made  the  stronger  ?     Show  the  need  of  valves  in  the  ventricles.     Why 
are  there  no  valves  in  the  auricles  ? 

72.  Describe  the  tricuspid  valve.     The  bicuspid.    Describe  the  semi- 
lunar  valves.     What  are  the  arteries  ?    Why  so  named  ?    What  is  their 
use  ?    Their  structure  ?     How  does  their  elasticity  act  ?     What  is  the 
aorta  ?    What  is  the  pulse  ? 

73.  On  which  arteries  can  we  best  feel  it  ?    What  is  the  average 
number  of  beats  per  minute?     How  and  why  does  this  vary?    Why 
does  a  physician  feel  a  patient's  pulse?     What  are  the  veins?    What 
blood   do   they  carry?     Describe   the   venous  system.     Describe  the 
valves  of  the  veins.     Which  valves  of  the  heart  do  they  resemble? 
Where  and  how  can  we  see  the  operation  of  these  valves  ?    What  are 
the  capillaries  ? 

74.  What  is  the  function  of  the  capillaries?     What  changes  take 
place  in  this  system  ?     Describe  the  circulation  of  the  blood  as  seen  in 
the  web  of  a  frog's  foot.     In  what  two  portions  is  the  general  circula- 
tion divided  ? 

75.  Describe  the  route  of  the  blood  by  the  diagram,      i.  The  lesser 
circulation  ;  2.  The  greater  circulation. 

76.  How  long  does  it  require  for  all  the  blood  to  pass  through  the 
heart?     How  long  does  it  take  the  blood  to  make  the  tour  of  the 
body?     What  is  the  average  temperature  of  the  body?      How   and 
where  is  the  heat  of  the  body  generated  ?    How  is  it  distributed  ?    How 
is  the  temperature  of  the  body  regulated  ?     In  what  way  does  life  exist 
through  death? 

77.  Is  not  this  as  true  in  the  moral  as  in  the  physical  world?     What 


176  QUESTIONS  FOR  CLASS  USE. 

does  it  teach  ?     How  rapidly  do  our  bodies  change  ?     Name  some  of 
the  wonders  of  the  heart. 

78.  What  is  the  lymphatic  circulation?     What  is  the  thoracic  duct? 
The  lymph?    The  glands? 

79.  Give  some  illustrations  of  the  action  of  the  lymphatics  of  the 
different    organs.       How    do    hibernating    animals    live    during   the 
winter  ?     What  is  a  congestion  ?     Its  cause  ?     Blushing  ?     Why  does 
terror  cause  one  to  grow  cold   and   pale?     How  is  an  inflammation 
caused?     Name  its  four  characteristics.     How  may  severe  bleeding  be 
stopped?     How  can  you  tell  whether  the  blood  comes  from  an  artery 
or  a  vein  ? 

80.  What  is  the  scrofula  ?     What  are  "  kernels  "  ?     How  may  a  scro 
fulous  tendency  of  the  system  be  counteracted  ?    What  is  the  cause  of 
"a  cold  "?     Why  does  exposure  sometimes  cause  a  cold  in  the  head, 
sometimes  on  the  lungs,  and  at  others  brings  on  a  rheumatic  attack  ? 
What  is  the  theory  of  treating  a  cold  ? 

81-2.  How  is  alcohol  always  made?  Does  it  exist  in  nature?  De- 
scribe the  general  process  of  fermentation.  What  is  "  malt  "  ?  How 
is  beer  made?  What  is  distillation?  How  is  whisky  manufactured  ? 

83.  Illustrate  some  of  the  properties  of  alcohol.  Illustrate  the 
general  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the  circulation. 

84-9.  Upon  the  heart.  Upon  the  membrane.  Upon  the  blood. 
Upon  the  lungs.  When  does  it  cause  consumption  ?  What  is  meant 
by  a  "  fatty  degeneration  "  of  the  heart  ?  How  does  alcohol  check  the 
regular  process  of  oxidation,  or  waste  and  repair  of  the  body  ? 


DIGESTION     AND    FOOD. 

91.  WHY  do  we  need  food  ?  Why  will  a  person  starve  without 
food  ?  How  much  food  is  needed  per  day  by  an  adult  in  active 
exercise?  How  much  in  a  year?  Describe  the  body  as  an  eddy. 
What  does  food  do  for  us?  What  does  food  contain?  How  is  this 
force  set  free  ?  Do  we  then  draw  all  our  power  from  nature  ?  What 
becomes  of  these  forces  when  we  are  done  with  them  ?  Do  we  destroy 
the  force  we  use  ?  A  us.  No  matter  has  been  destroyed,  so  far  as  we 
know,  since  the  creation,  and  force  is  equally  indestructible. 


DIGESTION  AND  FOOD.  177 

92.  Compare  our  food  to  a  tense  spring.     What  three  kinds  of  food 
do  we  need  ?     What  is  nitrogenous  food  ?     Name  the  common  forms. 
What  is  the  characteristic  of  nitrogenous  food  ?     Why  called  albumi- 
nous?    What  is  carbonaceous  food?     Name  the  two  kinds.     What  are 
the  constituents  of  sugar?     Where  is  starch  ranked  ?     Why?     Use  of 
carbonaceous  food  ? 

93.  Name  the    mineral  matters  which  should  be  contained  in  our 
food.     What   do  you   say  of  the  abundance  and  necessity  of  water? 
Ought  we  not  to  exercise  great  care  in  selecting  the  water  we  drink?* 
Will  not  the  character  of  our  food  influence  the  quantity  of  water  we 
need?     What  are  the  uses  of  these  different  minerals?     Illustrate  from 
your  own  knowledge  the  importance  of  salt.     Could  a  person  live  on 
one  kind  of  food  alone  ?     Illustrate.     Describe  the  effect  of  living  on 
lean  meat.     Show  the  necessity  of  a  mixed  diet.     Illustrate.     Show  the 
need  of  digestion.     Illustrate. 

94.  Describe  the  general  plan  of  digestion.     What  amount  of  liquid 
is  daily  secreted   by   the   alimentary  canal  ?     What  is  the  alimentary 
canal  ?     How  is  it  lined  ?     Define  secretion.     Describe  the  saliva. 

95.  How  is  it  secreted  ?     What   is   the   amount   per   day  ?     Its  use  ? 
What  tends  to  check  or  increase  the  flow  of  saliva?     Describe  the  pro- 
cess of  swallowing.     The  stomach.     Its  size. 

96.  Its  construction.      What  is  the  pylorus?     For  what  does   this 
open?     What  is  the  gastric  juice?     How  abundant  is  it?    What  prin- 
ciple does  it  contain?     How  is  its  flow  influenced?     What  is  its  use? 
Appearance  of  the  food  as  it  passes  through  the  pylorus?     What  is  the 
construction  of  the  intestines  ? 

98.  How  are  the  intestines  divided?  What  is  the  duodenum? 
Why  so  called  ?  What  juices  are  secreted  here?  What  is  the  bile? 
Describe  the  liver.  What  is  its  weight  ?  Its  construction  ?  Ans.  It 

*  Water  which  has  passed  through  lead-pipes  is  apt  to  contain  salts  of  that  metal, 
and  is  therefore  open  to  suspicion.  Metallic-lined  ice-pitchers,  galvanized  iron 
reservoirs,  and  many  soda-water  fountains,  are  liable  to  the  same  objection.  There 
are  also  organic  impurities  in  water  equally  dangerous.  River-water  often  dissemi- 
nates the  germs  of  typhoid  fever  and  other  diseases  just  as  the  air  scatters  the  seeds 
of  small-pox  and  scarlet  fever.  Thus  the  great  outbreak  of  cholera  in  the  east  of 
London,  in  1866,  was  traced  to  the  contamination  of  the  River  Lea,  which  furnished 
the  supply  of  water  to  that  part  of  the  city.  The  surface  water  frequently  flows  into 
a  well  carrying  organic  matter  to  poison  its  contents.  Wells  sometimes  receive 
underground  the  drainage  from  grave-yards,  manufactories,  cess-pools,  swamps, 
barn-yards,  vaults,  etc.,  all  of  which  render  the  water  unfit  for  use. 


178  QUESTIONS   FOR  CLASS  USE. 

consists  of  a  mass  of  polyhedral  cells  only  T^  to  ^^  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  filling  a  mesh  of  capillaries.  The  capillaries  carry  the  blood 
to  and  fro,  and  the  cells  secrete  the  bile.  What  is  the  cyst  ?  What 
does  the  liver  secrete  from  the  blood  besides  the  bile?  What  is  its 
use?  What  is  the  pancreatic  juice?  Its  use? 

99.  Appearance  of  the  food  when  it  leaves  the  duodenum  ?     Describe 
the  small  intestine.     WThat  is  absorption  ? 

100.  In  what  two  ways  is  the  food  absorbed  ?    Where  does  the  pro- 
cess commence?     How  long  does  it  last?     Describe  the  lacteals.     Of 
what   system   do   they   form   a   part?      What   do   the   veins    absorb? 
Where  do  they  carry  the  food  ?     How  is  it  modified  ?     What  length  of 
time  is  usually  required  for  digestion  in  the  stomach?     May  not  food 
which   requires   little   time  in  the  stomach  need  more  in  the  other 
organs,  and  vice  versa?     Tell  the  story  of  Alexis  St.  Martin. 

101.  What  time  did  he  require  to  digest  apples?    Eggs,  raw  and 
cooked?    Roast  beef ?    Pork?    Which  is  the  king  of  the  meats ?    What 
is  the  nutritive  value  of  mutton?     Lamb?     How  should  it  be  cooked? 
Objection  to  pork  ?     What  is  the  trichina?     Should  ham  ever  be  eaten 
raw?    Value  of  fish?    Oysters?     Milk?    Cheese?    Eggs? 

102.  Bread  ?     Brown  bread  ?     Are  warm  biscuit  and  bread  health- 
ful ?     Nutritive   value   of  corn  ?    The   potato  ?     Of  ripe   fruits  ?      Of 
coffee  ?    To  what  is  its  stimulating  property  due  ?    Its  influence  on 
the  system  ?     When  should  it  be  discarded  ? 

103.  Effects  of  tea ?     Influence  of  strong  tea?    What  is  the  active 
principle  of  tea  ?     What  is  the  effect  of  cooking  food  ?    What  precau- 
tion in  boiling  meat  ?     In  roasting  ?     Object  of  this  high  temperature  ? 
What  precaution  in  making  soup?  Why  is  frying  an  unhealthful  mode 
of  cooking  ?     State  the  five  evil  results  of  rapid  eating.     What  disease 
grows  out  of  it?     If  one  is  compelled  to  eat  a  meal  rapidly,  as  at  a 
railroad  station,  what  should  he  take? 

104.  Why  does  a  child  need   more  food  proportionately  than  an  old 
person  ?     State  the  relation  of  waste  to  repair  in  youth,  in  middle,  and 
in  old  age.     What  kind  and  quantity  of  food  does  a  sedentary  occu- 
pation require  ?     What  caution  should  students  who  have  been  accus- 
tomed to  manual  labor  observe  ?     Must  a  student  starve  himself?     Is 
there  not  danger  of  over-eating  ?     Would  not  an  occasional  abstinence 
from  a  meal  be  beneficial  ?     Do  not  most  people  eat  more  than  is  for 


THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  179 

their  good  ?  How  should  the  season  regulate  our  diet  ?  The  climate  ? 
Illustrate.  What  is  the  effect  upon  the  circulation  of  taking  food  ? 
Should  we  labor  or  study  just  before  or  after  a  meal?  Why  not? 
What  time  should  intervene  between  our  meals?  Is  "lunching"  a 
healthful  practice?  Should  we  eat  just  before  retiring?  When  we 
are  very  tired  ? 

105.  Why  should  care  be  banished  from  the  table  ?    Will  a  regular 
routine  of  food  be  beneficial  ?     Describe  some  of  the  wonders  of  diges- 
tion. 

106.  What  are  the  principal  causes  of  dyspepsia?      How  may   we 
avoid  that  disease?     What  are  the  mumps?     What   care   should   be 
taken? 

107-113.  Is  alcohol  a  food  ?  Illustrate.  Compare  the  action  of  alco- 
hol with  that  of  water.  Does  all  the  alcohol  taken  into  the  stomach  go 
off  unchanged  ?  Does  alcohol  contain  any  element  needed  by  the 
body?  What  is  the  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the  digestion?  Upon  the 
pepsin  of  the  gastric  juice?  Upon  the  albuminous  food  ?  What  is  a 
"fatty  degeneration  of  the  kidneys  "?  Will  alcohol  help  one  to  endure 
cold  and  exposure  ?  Will  liquor  strengthen  the  muscles  of  a  working 
man  ?  Is  alcohol  digested  ?  Is  liquor  a  wholesome  "  tonic  "  ?  Is  it  a 
good  plan  to  take  a  glass  of  liquor  before  dinner  ?  What  is  the  effect 
of  alcohol  upon  the  liver  ?  What  is  the  "  Hob  nail  "  liver  ?  What  is 
the  general  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the  kidneys  ?  Does  alcohol  impart 
heat  to  the  body?  Does  it  confer  strength?  What  does  Dr.  Kane 
say?  Describe  Richardson's  experiments.  How  does  alcohol  act 
in  creating  an  appetite  for  itself?  What  is  alcoholism?  What  is 
heredity? 


THE     NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

115.  WHAT  are  the  organs  of  the  nervous  system?  What  is  the 
general  use  of  this  system?  What  is  the  gray  matter?  Its  use? 
The  white  matter  ?  Its  use  ?  Describe  the  brain.  What  is  its  office  ? 
Its  size?  How  does  it  vary? 

117.  Name  its  two  divisions.     Describe  the  cerebrum.     The  convo- 


180  QUESTIONS  FOR  CLASS  USE. 

lutions.  The  membranes  which  bind  the  brain  together.  What  do 
you  say  of  the  quantity  of  blood  which  goes  to  the  brain  ?  What  does 
it  show  ?  What  do  the  convolutions  indicate?  What  is  the  use  of  the 
two  halves  of  the  brain? 

1 1 8.  What  is  the  effect  of  removing  the  cerebrum?     Describe  the 
cerebellum. 

119.  What  is  the  arbor  vitse?     What  does  this  part  of  the  brain  con- 
trol ?     What  is  the  effect  of  its  being  injured  ?  Illustrate.     Describe  the 
spinal  cord.     What  is  the  medulla  oblongata?     Describe  the  nerves. 
Is  each  part  of  the  body  supplied  with  its  own  nerve? 

120-3,  Prove  it.  What  are  the  motory  nerves?  The  sensory? 
When  will  motion  be  lost  and  feeling  remain,  and  vice  versa?  What 
is  meant  by  a  transfer  of  pain  ?  Illustrate.  Name  the  three  classes  of 
nerves,  What  are  the  spinal  nerves  ?  Describe  the  origin  of  the  spinal 
nerve.  What  is  the  effect  of  cutting  a  sensory  root?  A  motory  root? 
What  are  the  cranial  nerves?  Name  the  twelve  pairs.  Describe 
the  sympathetic  system.  What  is  its  use?  How  does  the  brain 
control  all  the  vital  processes?  What  is  meant  by  the  crossing  of  the 
cords?  What  is  the  effect  ?  What  is  reflex  action  ? 

I2*;.  Give  illustrations.  Give  instances  of  the  unconscious  action 
of  the  brain.  Can  there  be  feeling  or  motion  in  the  lower  limbs  when 
the  spinal  cord  is  destroyed  ?  What  are  the  uses  of  reflex  action  ? 
State  its  value  in  the  formation  of  habits.  How  does  the  brain  grow? 

125.  What  laws  govern  it  ?     What  must  be  the  effect  of  constant 
light-reading?    Of  over-study  or  mental  labor?     State  the  relation  of 
sleep  to  repair  and  waste.     How  many  hours  does  each  person  need? 
What  kind  of  work   requires   most  sleep  ?     What  danger  is  there  in 
obtaining  sleep  by  medicine  ?     What  is  the  influence  of  sunlight  on 
the  body  ? 

126.  Illustrate.     Name  some  of  the  wonders  of  the  brain. 
127-131.  What  four  stages  are  there  in  the  effect  of  alcohol  on  the 

nervous  system  ?  Describe  each.  Does  alcohol  confer  any  permanent 
strength?  What  is  the  physiological  effect  of  alcohol  on  the  brain? 
On  the  mental  and  moral  powers?  What  is  the  Delirium  Tremens? 
Do  you  think  a  man  should  be  punished  for  a  crime  he  commits  while 
drunk?  How  does  alcohol  interfere  with  the  action  of  the  nerves? 
What  is  the  general  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the  character  ?  Does  alcohol 


THE  SPECIAL  SENSES.  181 

tend  to  produce  clearness  and  vigor  of  thought  ?  What  is  the  cause 
of  the  "alcoholic  chill "?  Show  how  alcohol  tends  to  develop  man's 
lower,  rather  than  his  higher,  nature.  When  we  wish  really  to  strengthen 
the  brain,  should  we  use  alcohol  ?  Why  is  alcohol  used  to  preserve 
anatomical  specimens?  What  is  meant  by  an  inherited  taste  for  liquor? 
To  what  extent  are  we  responsible  for  the  health  of  our  body  ?  Why 
does  alcohol  tend  to  collect  in  the  brain  ?  Does  the  use  of  alcohol 
tend  to  increase  crime,  and  poverty  ? 

132-4.  What  are  the  principal  constituents  of  tobacco  ?  What  are 
the  physiological  effects  of  tobacco  ?  Who  are  most  likely  to  escape 
injury?  Is  tobacco  a  food  ?  What  is  its  influence  upon  youth?  Why 
are  cigarettes  specially  injurious?  Name  illustrations  of  the  injurious 
effect  of  tobacco  on  young  men. 

135-6.  How  is  opium  obtained?  What  is  its  physiological  effect? 
Can  one  give  up  the  use  of  opium  when  he  pleases  ?  What  is  the 
danger  in  its  use? 

136-7.  What  is  the  harmful  influence  of  chloral  hydrate?  Of  chloro- 
form ? 


THE    SPECIAL    SENSES. 

139.  NAME  the  five  senses.     To  what  organ  do  all  the  senses  minis- 
ter?    If  the  nerve  leading  to  any  organ  of  sense  be  cut,  what  would  be 
the  effect?     Sometimes  persons  lose  feeling  in  a  limb,  but  retain  mo- 
tion ;  why  is  this?    What    is   the   sense   of  touch  sometimes  called? 
Describe  the  organ  of  touch.     What  are  the  papillae?     Where  are  they 
most  abundant?    What  are  the  uses  of  this  sense?     What  special 
knowledge  do  we  obtain  by  it  ?     Why  do  we  always  desire  to  handle 
anything  curious? 

140.  Can   the   sense  of  touch   always  be   relied   upon?     Illustrate. 
Tell  how  one  sense  can  take  the  place  of  another.     Give  illustrations 
of  the  delicacy  of  touch  possessed  by  the  blind. 

141.  Describe  the  sense  of  taste.      How  can   you  see  the   papillae 
of  taste?    What  causes  the  velvety  look  of  the  tongue?     Why  do  salt 
and  bitter  flavors  induce  vomiting?     Why  does  an  acid  "pucker"  the 
face?    What  substances  are  tasteless?     Illustrate.     Has  sulphur  any 


182  QUESTIONS  FOR  CLASS  USE. 

taste?  Chalk?  Sand?  What  is  the  use  of  this  sense?  Does  it  not 
also  add  to  the  pleasures  of  life  ?  Why  are  the  acts  of  eating,  drinking, 
etc.,  thus  made  sources  of  happiness? 

142.  Describe  the  organ  of  smell.     Must  the  object  to  be  smelled 
touch  the  nose?    What  are  the  uses  of  this  sense?    Are  agreeable 
odors  healthful,  and  disagreeable  ones  unhealthful  ? 

143.  Describe   the   organ   of  hearing.     Describe   the  external  ear. 
What  is  the  tympanum  or  drum  of  the  ear?     Describe  the  middle  ear. 
Name  the  bones  of  the  ear.     Describe  their  structure.     Describe  the 
internal  ear.     By  what  other  name  is  it  known  ?     What  substances 
float  in  the  liquid   which  fills  the  labyrinth?     Describe  the  fibers  of 
Corti.     What  do  they  form  ?     How  are  the  vibrations  of  the  air  modi- 
fied before  they  reach  the  nerve  ?     Give  the  theory  of  sound.     What 
advice  is  given  concerning  the  care  of  the  ear?     How  can  insects  be 
removed  ? 

145.  Describe  the  eye.  Name  the  three  coats  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed. What  is  the  object  of  the  crystalline  lens?  Describe  the 
liquids  which  fill  the  eye.  What  is  the  pupil  ?  Describe  the  eyelids. 
Why  is  the  inner  side  of  the  eyelid  so  sensitive  ?  What  is  the  use  of 
the  eyelashes  ?  Where  are  the  oil  glands  located  ?  What  is  their  use  ? 
Describe  the  lachrymal  gland.  The  lachrymal  lake.  What  causes  the 
overflow  in  old  age  ?  Explain  the  use  of  the  rods  and  cones.  What  is 
the  blind  spot  ?  Illustrate.  What  is  the  theory  of  sight  ?  Illustrate. 
State  the  action  of  the  crystalline  lens.  Its  power  of  adaptation.  Cause 
of  near-sightedness.  How  remedied  ?  Cause  of  far-sightedness  ?  How 
remedied  ?  Do  children  ever  need  spectacles?  What  is  the  cataract? 
How  cured  ?  What  care  should  be  taken  of  the  eyes?  Should  one 
constantly  lean  forward  over  his  book  or  work  ?  What  special  care 
should  near-sighted  children  take?  By  what  carelessness  may  we 
impair  our  sight  ?  Should  we  ever  read  or  write  at  twilight  ?  What  is 
the  danger  of  reading  uoon  the  cars  ?  What  course  should  we  take 
when  objects  get  into  the  eye?  How  may  they  be  removed?  Are 
"eye-stones"  useful?  Why  we  should  never  use  eye-washes  except 
upon  the  advice  of  a  competent  physician  ?  What  care  should  be  taken 
with  regard  to  the  direction  of  the  light  when  we  are  at  work  ? 


GLOSSARY. 


AB  DO'MEN  (abdo,  I  conceal).  The  largest  cavity  in  the  body,  in  which 
are  hidden  the  intestines,  stomach,  etc. 

AB  SORB'ENT  (ab,  from ;  sorbeo,  I  suck  up). 

AC'E  TAB'U  LUM  (acetum,  vinegar).  The  socket  for  holding  the  head  of 
the  thigh-bone,  shaped  like  an  ancient  vinegar  vessel. 

A  CET'IC  (acetum,  vinegar). 

AD' i  POSE.     Fatty. 

AL  BU'MEN  (albus,  white).     A  substance  resembling  the  white  of  egg. 

AL  BU'MI  NOUS  substances  contain  much  albumen. 

AL/I  MENT'A  RY.     Pertaining  to  food. 

AI/KA  LINE  (-1m)  substances  neutralize  acids. 

AN'JES  THET'IC.     A  substance  that  destroys  the  feeling  of  pain. 

A  OR/TA.     The  largest  artery  of  the  body. 

AP'O  PLEX  Y  (-plek-se).  A  disease  marked  by  loss  of  sensation  and  vol- 
untary motion. 

A'QUE  ous  (a'-kwe-us).     Watery. 

A  RACH'NOID  (arachne,  a  spider ;  eidos,  form).  A  membrane  like  a 
spider's  web  covering  the  brain. 

AR'BOR  VI'TLE  means  "the  tree  of  life." 

AR'TER  Y  (aer,  air;  tereo,  I  contain).  So  named  because  after  death  the 
arteries  contain  air  only,  and  hence  the  ancients  supposed  them  to  be  air- 
tubes  leading  through  the  body. 

AR  TIC'U  LATE  (articulo,  I  form  a  joint).     AR  TIC'U  LA  TIOX.     A  joint. 

As  PHYX'I  A  (-fix'-e-a).     Literally,  no-pulse  ;  apparent  death. 

As  SIM' i  LA'TION  is  the  process  of  changing  food  into  flesh,  etc. 

AT' LAS.  So  called  because,  as  in  ancient  fable  the  god  Atlas  supported 
the  globe  on  his  shoulders,  so  in  the  body  this  bone  bears  the  head. 

AU'DI  TO  RY  NERVE.     The  nerve  of  hearing. 

AU'RI  OLE  (auris,  ear)  of  the  heart.     So  named  from  its  shape. 

BI'CEPS.     A  muscle  with  two  heads,  or  origins. 

Bi  CUS'PID.     Tooth  with  two  points  ;  also  a  valve  of  the  heart. 

BRON'CHI  (-ki).     The  two  branches  of  the  wind-pipe. 

BRON'CHI  AL  TUBES.     Subdivisions  of  bronchi. 

BUR  SA  (a  purse).    Small  sac  containing  fluid  near  a  joint. 


184  GLOSSARY. 

CA  NINE'  (canis,  a  dog)  teeth  are  like  dogs'  teeth. 
CAP'IL  LA  RIES  (capillus,  a  hair).    A  system  of  tiny  blood-vessels. 
CAR' BON.     Pure  charcoal. 

CAR  BON'IC  ACID.     A  deadly  gas  given  off  by  the  lungs,  and  by  fires. 
CA  ROT' IDS  (karos,  lethargy).     Arteries  of  the  neck,  so  named  because 
the  ancients  supposed  them  to  be  the  seat  of  sleep. 
CAR' PUS.     The  wrist. 
CAR'TI  LAGE.     Gristle. 

CELL.     A  minute  sac,  usually  with  soft  walls  and  fluid  contents. 
CEL'LU  LAR  (cellula,  a  little  cell).     Full  of  cells. 
CER'E  BEL'LUM.     The  little  brain. 
CER'E  BRUM.     A  Latin  word  meaning  brain. 
CER'VI  CAL.     Relating  to  the  neck. 
CHLO'RAL  (klo)  HY'DRATE.     A  drug  used  to  induce  sleep. 
CHO'ROID.     The  second  coat  of  the  eye. 
CHYLE  (kile).     A  milky  juice  formed  in  digestion. 
CHYME  (kime).     From  chumos,  juice. 

CIR'CU  LA'TION.     The  course  of  the  blood  through  the  body. 
CIL'I  A  (the  plural  of  cilium,  an  eyelash).     Hair-like  projections  in  the  air- 


CLAV'I  CLE  (klav-i-kl).     From  clavis,  a  key. 
Co  AG'U  LA'TION.     A  clotting  of  blood. 
COC'CYX  (a  cuckoo).     A  bony  mass  below  the  sacrum. 
COCH'LE  A.    A  Latin  word  meaning  snail  shell.     See  Ear. 
COM' POUND.     A  substance  composed  of  two  or  more  elements. 
CON  TA'GI  ous  diseases  are  those  caught  by  contact,  the  breath,  etc. 
CON'TRAC  TIL'I  TY  (con,  together ;  traho,  I  draw). 
CON'VO  LU'TION  (con,  together ;  volvo,  I  roll). 

COR'NE  A  (cornu,  a  horn).      A  transparent,  horn-like  window  in  the  eye. 
COR' PUS  CLE  (kor'-pus-l).     From  a  Latin  word  meaning  a  little  body.     It 
is  applied  to  the  disks  of  the  blood. 
CRA'NI  AL.     Relating  to  the  skull. 
CRYS'TAL  LINE  (crystallum,  a  crystal). 
Cu  TA'NE  ous  (cutis,  skin).     Pertaining  to  the  skin. 
CU'TI  CLE  (ku'ti  kl).     From  a  Latin  word  meaning  little  skin. 
CU'TIS,  the  true  skin. 

DEN'TAL  (dens,  dentis,  a  tooth). 

DI'A  PHRAGM  (-fram).    The  muscle  dividing  the  abdomen  from  the  chest 

Dr  AS'TO  LE  (diastello,  I  put  asunder).      Dilation  of  the  heart. 

DIS'LO  CA'TION.     A  putting  out  of  joint. 

DOR'SAL  (dorsum,  the  back). 

DUCT.     A  small  tube. 

Du  o  DE'NUM  (duodeni,  twelve  each). 


GLOSSARY.  185 

DU'RA  MA'TER  (duriis,  hard  ;  mater,  mother).     The  outer  membrane  of 
the  brain. 

DYS  PEP'SI  A  is  a  difficulty  of  digestion. 

E  LIM'I  NATE.     To  expel. 

EP'I  DEM'IC.     A  disease  affecting  a  great  number  of  persons  at  once. 
EP'I  DERM'IS.     The  cuticle. 

EP'I  GLOT'TIS  (epi,  upon  ;  glottis,  the  tongue).    The  lid  of  the  wind-pipe. 
EP'I  THE'LI  UM.     The  outer  surface  of  mucous  or  serous  membranes. 
Eu  STA'CHI  AN  (yu-sta'ki-an)  TUBE.     So  named  from  its  discoverer,  an 
Italian  physician. 

Ex  CRE'TION.     Waste  particles  thrown  off  by  the  excretory  organs. 
FER'MEN  TA'TION.     The  process  by  which  sugar  is  turned  into  alcohol. 
FI'BRIN  (fibra,  a  fiber). 
FIL'A  MENT  (filum,  a  thread). 
FUNC'TION.     See  Organ. 

GAN'GLI  ON  (gang'-gli-on).     From  ganglion,  a  knot ;  plu.  ganglia. 
GAS'TRIC  (gaster,  stomach). 

GLANDS  (glandz).     From  glans,  a  Latin  word  meaning  acorn.     Their  ob- 
ject is  to  secrete  in  their  cells  some  liquid  from  the  blood. 
GLOT'TIS.     The  opening  at  the  top  of  the  larynx. 

HU'ME  RUS.     The  arm-bone. 

HU'MOR.      A  Latin  word  meaning  moisture. 

HY'DRO  GEN.     The  lightest  gas  known,  and  one  of  the  elements  of  water. 

HY'GI  ENE.     From  a  Greek  word  meaning  health. 

HYP'O  GLOS'SAL.     Literally  "  under  the  tongue  ";  a  nerve  of  the  tongue. 

IN  CI'SOR  (incido,  I  cut)  teeth  are  cutting  teeth. 
IN'SPI  RA'TION  (in  and  spiro,  I  breathe  in). 
IN  TES'TINE  (-tin).     From  intus,  within. 

LACH'RY  MAL  (lachryma,  a  tear).     Pertaining  to  tears. 
LAC'TE  AL  (lac,  lactis,  milk).     So  called  from  the  milky  look  of  the  chyle 
during  digestion. 

LA  CU'NA,  plu.  lacunae  (lakos,  a  hole).     Cavities  in  the  bone-structure. 

LAR'YNX  (lar-mx).     The  upper  part  of  the  wind-pipe. 

LIG'A  MENTS  (ligo,  I  bind)  tie  bones  together. 

LU'BRI  GATE.     To  oil  in  order  to  prevent  friction. 

LUM'BAR  (lumbus,  a  loin).     Pertaining  to  the  loins. 

LYMPH  (limf ).     From  lym,pha>  pure  water. 

LYM  PHAT'IC  (lim-fat'-ik). 

MAS'TI  CA'TION.     The  act  of  che\ving. 

ME  DUL'LA  OB  LON  GA'TA.     The  upper  part  of  the  spinal  cord. 


186  GLOSSARY. 

MEM'BRANE.     A  thin  skin,  or  tissue. 

MES'EN  TER  Y.  The  membrane  by  which  the  intestines  are  fastened  to 
the  spine. 

MET7  A  CAR'PAL  (meta,  after ;  karpos,  wrist). 

MET' A  TAR'SAL  (meta,  after  ;  tarsos,  the  instep). 

Mr'cRO  SCOPE  (mikros,  small ;  skopeo,  I  see). 

MO'LAR  (mola,  a  mill)  teeth  are  the  grinders. 

MOR'PHINE  (Morpheus,  the  Greek  god  of  sleep). 

Mo' TO  RY.     Giving  motion. 

Mu'cous  (-kus)  MEMBRANE.  A  thin  tissue,  or  skin,  covering  the  open 
cavities  of  the  body.  See  Serous. 

Mu'cus.     A  fluid  secreted  by  a  membrane  and  serving  to  lubricate  it. 

MUS'CLE  (mils' si).     A  bundle  of  fibers  covered  by  a  membrane. 

MY  O'PIA  (muo,  I  contract ;  ops,  the  eye). 

NAR  COT' ic.     A  drug  producing  sleep. 

NA'SAL  (na'-zle).    From  nasus,  the  nose. 

NERVE  (neuron,  a  cord). 

NI'TRO  GEN  GAS  is  the  passive  element  of  the  air. 

Ni  TROG'E  NOUS.     Containing  nitrogen. 

Nu  TRI'TION.     The  process  by  which  the  body  is  nourished. 

(E  SOPH'A  GUS  (e-sof'-a-gus).     The  gullet ;  literally,  a  "  food- carrier. " 
OL  FAC'TO  RY.     Pertaining  to  the  smell. 

OR'GAN.     An  organ  is  a  portion  of  the  body  designed  for  a  particular  use, 
which  is  called  its  function  ;  thus  the  heart  circulates  the  blood. 
Os' SE  ous  (-us).     Bone-like. 
Os'si  FT  (ossa,  bones  ;  facio,  I  make). 
Ox  i  DA'TION.     The  process  of  combining  with  oxygen. 
OX'Y  GEN.     The  active  element  of  the  air. 

PAL' ATE  (palatum,  the  palate).     Roof  of  the  mouth. 

PAN'CRE  AS  (pas,  all  ;  kreas,  flesh).     An  organ  of  digestion. 

PA  PIL'LA,  plu.  papillae.     Tiny  cone-like  projections. 

PA  RAL'Y  sis.  A  disease  in  which  one  loses  sensation,  or  the  power  of 
motion,  or  both. 

PA  ROT' ID  (para,  near  ;  ous,  otos,  ear).     One  of  the  salivary  glands. 

PA  TEL'LA  (a  little  dish).     The  knee-pan. 

PEC' TO  RAL.     Pertaining  to  the  chest. 

PEP'SIN  (pepto,  I  digest).     The  chief  constituent  of  the  gastric  juice. 

PER'I  CAR'DI  UM  (peri,  around  ;  kardia,  the  heart).  The  membrane 
wrapping  the  heart. 

PER'I  OS'TE  UM  (peri,  around  ;  osteon,  bone).  The  membrane  around  the 
bone. 


GLOSSARY.  187 

PER' i  STAL'TIC  (peri,  round  ;  stallcin,  to  arrange).  Applied  to  the 
worm-like  movement  of  the  alimentary  canal. 

PHAR'YNX  (faVinx).     From  pharugx,  the  throat. 

Pi' A  MA'TER  (tender  mother).     See  Brain. 

PIG'MENT.     A  paint. 

PLAS'MA  (plaz'-mah).     The  nutritious  fluid  of  the  blood. 

PLEU'RA  (plu'-rah).  From  pleura,  a  rib.  The  membrane  that  lines  the 
chest  and  wraps  the  lungs. 

PRES  BY  O'PI  A  (presbus,  old ;  ops,  the  eye).  A  defect  in  the  eye  com- 
mon to  old  age. 

PROG' ESS.  A  projection.  Sometimes  it  retains  its  ordinary  meaning  of 
"operation." 

PY  LO'RUS  (a  gate).  The  doorway  through  which  the  food  passes  from 
the  stomach. 

PUI/MO  NA  RY  (pulmo,  the  lungs).     Pertaining  to  the  lungs. 

RA'DI  us.     A  Latin  word  meaning  the  spoke  of  a  wheel,  a  ray,  etc. 
RAM' i  FY.     To  spread  like  the  branches  of  a  tree. 
RES'PI  RA'TION  (re,  again  ;  spiro,  I  breathe).     Act  of  breathing. 
RET' i  NA  (rete,  a  net).     The  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve  in  the  eye. 

SA'CRUM  (sacred).  So  named,  it  is  said,  because  this  bone  of  the  pelvis 
was  anciently  offered  in  sacrifice. 

SA  LI'VA.  A  Latin  word  meaning  spittle  ;  the  fluid  secreted  by  the  sali- 
vary glands. 

SCAP'U  LA.     The  shoulder-blade. 

SCAV'EN  GER.     A  street-sweeper. 

SOLE  ROT'IC  (skle-rot'ic).     The  outer  coat  of  the  eye. 

SE  CRE'TION  (secretum,  to  separate). 

SED'EN  TA  RY  persons  are  those  who  sit  much. 

SEN' so  RY  NERVES.     The  nerves  of  feeling. 

SE'ROTJS  MEMBRANE.  A  thin  tissue,  or  skin,  covering  the  cavities  of  the 
body  that  are  not  open  to  the  external  air. 

SE'RUM.     The  thin  part  of  the  blood. 

SUB  CLA'VI  AN.     Located  under  the  clavicle. 

SUB  LIN'GUAL  (sub,  under ;  lingua,  the  tongue).  The  salivary  gland 
located  under  the  tongue. 

SUB  MAX'IL  LA  RY  (sub,  under  ;  maxilla,  jaw-bone).  The  salivary  gland 
located  under  the  jaw. 

SYN  o'  vi  A  (sun,  with  ;  oon,  egg).     A  fluid  that  lubricates  the  joints. 

SYN  o'vi  AL  MEMBRANE  packs  the  joints. 

SYS'TO  LE  (sustello,  I  contract).     Contraction  of  the  heart. 


188  GLOSSARY. 

TEM'PO  RAL.  An  artery  on  the  temple  (tempus,  time),  so-called  because, 
as  is  said,  the  hair  whitens  tirst  at  that  point. 

TEN'DONS  (tendo,  I  stretch).  The  cords  conveying  motion  from  the 
muscle  to  the  bone. 

THO'RAX  (a  breast-plate).     The  cavity  containing  the  lungs,  etc. 

TIB'I  A.     The  shin-bone. 

TIS'SUE.  A  general  term  applied  to  the  textures  of  which  the  different 
organs  are  composed  ;  osseous  tissue  forms  bones. 

TRA'CHE  A  (tra'-ke-a).  Means  rough,  alluding  to  the  roughened  surface 
of  the  windpipe. 

TRI'CEPS.     A  muscle  with  three  heads,  or  origins. 

TRI  CUS'PID  (tres,  three  ;  ctispis,  point).     A  valve  of  the  heart. 

TYM'PA  NUM  (a  drum)  of  the  ear. 

VAS'CU  LAR  (vasculum,  little  vessel).     Full  of  small  blood-vessels 
VEN'TRI  CLE  (-kl).     A  cavity  of  the  heart. 

VER'TE  BRA,  plu.  vertebrae  (verto,  I  turn).  A  term  applied  to  each  one 
of  the  bones  of  the  spine. 

VIL/LUS  (villus,  tuft  of  hair),  plu.  villi. 
VIT'I  ATE.     To  taint.     To  spoil. 
VIT'RE  ous  (vitrum,  glass).     Glassy. 
VO'MER  (plowshare).     A  bone  of  the  nose. 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

ABDOMEN 54 

Absorbing  power  of  skin 79 

Absorption  of  food 99 

Air,  The 56 

Albumen 92 

Alcohol 81,  106,  127 

"       as  a  Narcotic 85 

"       Cause  of  Degeneration 85 

Effect  upon  Blood 87 

"        "     Brain 129 

"        "      Circulation 83 

'•  "        "     Digestion 108 

"  "        "      Heat  of  body...  no 

"        "     Heart   84 

<k        "      Kidneys 109 

"        "     Liver 109 

"        "      Lungs 88 

"  "        "      Membrane 86 

*'        '•      Mental  Powers.  130 

'•        "      Muscle in 

u        "     Nervous  System  127 

"      Waste HI 

Alcoholism 112 

Alimentary  canal 94 

Antidotes  for  poison Appendix 

Aorta '. 75 

Apoplexy Appendix 

Arteries  72 

Asphyxia Appendix 

Atlas 16 

Auricles  of  the  heart 70 

Axis 16 

BALL-AND-SOCKET-JOINT 19 

Bathing 43 

Beef I0i 

Bicuspid  valve 72 


PAGE 

Bile 98 

Bleeding,  Checking  of  .. 79 

Blood, The 67 

Blushing 79 

Bones,  The n 

Bow-legs 22 

Brain J...  115 

"     Exercise 124 

Bread 101 

Breast-bone 17 

Breathing 53 

Bronchi 53 

Burns Appendix 

CANAL,  Alimentary 94 

Capillaries 73 

Carbonic  acid 56 

Carbonaceous  food 92 

Cartilage 12 

Cataract 151 

Cerebellum n3 

Cerebrum 117 

Change  of  our  bodies 77 

Cheese IOE 

Chilblain 47 

Chloral  hydrate 136 

Chloroform.... 137 

Choking Appendix 

Chyle 99 

Chyme 96 

Cilia,  The 53 

Circulation 67 

Clavicle 18 

Clothing 45 

Coagulation  of  Blood 68 

Coffee 102 

Cold,  A 80 


190 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Color  Blindness 151 

Complexion,  The 36 

Congestion 79 

Connective  tissue 38 

Consumption 65 

Corns 46 

Corpuscles  (Cells) 67 

Cortian  fibers 144 

Cosmetics 79 

Coughing 55 

Croup 65 

Crying 55 

Crystalline  lens 146 

Curvature  of  the  spine 23 

Cuticle,  The  35 

Cutis,  The 35 

DEGENERATION,  FATTY 85 

Delirium  Tremens 130 

Diaphragm 53 

Digestion 91 

Diphtheria ...    65 

Disinfectants Appendix 

Dislocation 23 

Drinking-  water Appendix 

Drowning Appendix 

Duodenum 98 

Dyspepsia 106 

EAR,  The 143 

Eating,  Rapid 102 

Eggs ioi 

Elbow,  The 19 

Epiglottis 49 

Epilepsy Appendix 

Eustachian  tube 144 

Exercise,  Muscular 31 

"         Brain -  124 

Expiration 53 

Eye,  The 146 

"    Muscles  of  the 28 

FAR-SIGHT 150 

Fats,  The 39,  92 

Femur    ..  21 


PAGE 

Fever Appendix 

Fibrin 68 

Fibula 21 

Fish ioi 

Flannel 45 

Food,  Absorption  of 99 

"        Cooking  of 103 

"        Digestion  of 93 

Need  of . . .      91 

Foot,  The 22 

Frost-bite Appendix 

GALL-BLADDER  (cyst) 54,  98 

Ganglion,  A  nerve 115 

Gastric-juice 96 

Glottis 49 

Glycogen 98 

Gout,  The 33 

Gristle 12 

HAIR,  THE 36 

Hair-dyes 37,  79 

Hand,  The 20 

Head 14 

Hearing 143 

Heart 69 

Heat  of  Body 76 

Heredity 112 

Hiccough 55 

Hinge-joints  19 

Hip,  The 17,  21 

Humerus 19 

INFLAMMATION 79 

Innominata 18 

Inspiration 53 

Intestines,  The 54 


Jon 


OINTS 


KNEE,  The  ..........................  21 

LABYRINTH,  The  .......   ............  144 

Lachrymal  glands  ...................  147 

Lacteals  ...........................  100 

Larynx  .......   ......................  49 


INDEX. 


191 


PAGE 

Laughing 55 

Life  by  death 76 

Ligaments 13 

Liver 98 

Locked-jaw 33 

Lungs,  The 53 

"        Constriction  of  the 64 

Lymphatic  system 78 

MARROW 12 

Mastication 94 

Medulla  oblongata 122 

Membrane,  Uses  of 39 

Metacarpal  bones 24 

Milk ...  ioi 

Mucous  membrane 38 

Mucus 38 

Mumps,  The 106 

Muscles,  The 25 

Muscular  sense 30 

Mutton ioi 

NAILS,  The 36,  37 

"       In-growing 46 

Near-sight 150 

Nerves,  The 115,119 

Nervous  system,  The 115 

Nitrogenous  food 92 

Nose,  The 142 

CEsophagus 49 

Oil  Glands,  The 42 

Oils,  The 92 

Opium 135 

Ossification , I2 

Oxidation  91 

Oxygen 56 

PALATE,  The  5o 

Pancreatic  juice 98 

Papillae 37 

Patella,  The 21,  29 

Pelvis,  The ,7 

Pepsin 96 


PAGE 

Pericardium 7o 

Perspiration,  The  43 

Pharynx 50 

Pigment 36 

Plasma 67 

Pleura 53 

Pneumonia 65 

Poisons Appendix 

Pork I0i 

Potatoes 102 

Pulmonary  arteries 74 

"          veins 75 

Pulse  73 

Pylorus 96 

RADIUS 19 

Reaction 44 

Reflex  action 123 

Respiration 53 

Rheumatism 33 

Ribs,  The 16 

Rickets,  The 22 


SACRUM,  The i3 

St.  Martin,  Alexis 100 

St.  Virus's  Dance 33 

Saliva,  The 94 

Salt 93 

Scapula 18 

Scrofula 80 

Sea-bathing 45 

Secretion,  Definition  of 95 

Semi-lunar  valves 72 

Senses,  The 139 

Serum 68 

Shoulder,  The 18 

Sick,  Care  of Appendix 

Sight,  Sense  of 145 

Skeleton,  The n 

Skin,  The 35 

Skull,  The 14 

Sleep 125 

"    by  medicine 125 

Smell,  Sense  of 142 


192 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Sneezing 55 

Snoring  55 

Speech 52 

Spinal  cord 119 

"      nerves. 120 

Spine,  The 15 

Spleen 94 

Sprain 23 

Squinting 151 

Stammering 65 

Sternum , 17 

Stomach 55 

Sugars,  The 92 

Sunlight ...  191 

Sunstroke Appendix 

Sutures 14 

Sweat <3 

Swimming 31 

TARTAR 42 

Taste,  Sense  of 141 

Tea 102 

Tears,  The  147 

Teeth,  The 40 

Temperature  of  the  body 75 

Tendons 26 

Thoracic  duct 78 

Throat 49 

Tibia 21 

Tight-lacing 64 


PAGE 

Tobacco 132 

Tongue,  The 141 

Tooth-ache,  The Appendix. 

Touch,  Sense  of 139 

Trachea 53 

Tricuspid  valve 72 

Tympanum 143 

ULNA,  The 19 

Urea,  Uric  Acid 98 

VALVES  of  heart  and  veins 71,  73 

Veins,  The 73 

Velocity  of  the  blood 76 

Vena  cava  (Plu.,  venae  cavx) 75 

Ventilation 57 

Ventricles.   : 70 

Vertebrae 15 

Villi  of  intestine 100 

Vocal  cords 49 

Voice,  The 51 

WALKING 30 

Warts 46 

Washing 43 

Water 93 

Windpipe 52 

Woolen . , 45 

Worms 42 

Woundo Appendix 

Wrist,  The 19 


0 

p  f 


Tb  36! 12 


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